The Project Gutenberg EBook of Peeps at Many Lands: Egypt, by R. Talbot Kelly

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org


Title: Peeps at Many Lands: Egypt

Author: R. Talbot Kelly

Release Date: June 21, 2006 [EBook #18647]

Language: English

Character set encoding: UTF-8

*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PEEPS AT MANY LANDS: EGYPT ***




Produced by Bruce Albrecht, Sankar Viswanathan, and the
Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net









      [Illustration: BY STILL WATERS.]

      [Illustration: SEBIL OF THE MOSQUE OF THE SULTAN KELAUN.]


                         PEEPS AT MANY LANDS

                                EGYPT



                                  BY

                           R. TALBOT KELLY
                        R.I., R.B.A., F.R.G.S.
                      COMMANDER OF THE MEDJIDIEH


                 WITH TWELVE FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS
                              IN COLOUR


                                  BY

                              THE AUTHOR



                                LONDON
                        ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK
                                 1916

       *       *       *       *       *




CONTENTS


CHAPTER

I. ITS ANTIQUITY

II. THE LAND

III. CAIRO--I

IV. CAIRO--II

V. THE NILE--I

VI. THE NILE--II

VII. THE NILE--III

VIII. THE MONUMENTS

IX. THE PEOPLE

X. THE DESERT

       *       *       *       *       *




LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS


SEBIL OF THE MOSQUE OF THE SULTAN KELAUN       _frontispiece_

AN IRRIGATED FIELD

AN ARAB CAFÉ, CAIRO

A MOSQUE INTERIOR

A STREET IN CAIRO

A WATERING-PLACE

THE FIRST CATARACT FROM ELEPHANTINE ISLAND

THE PYRAMIDS OF GHIZEH FROM THE DESERT

THE COLOSSI OF THEBES--MOONRISE

A NILE VILLAGE

DESERT ARABS

BY STILL WATERS                       _on the cover_

       *       *       *       *       *

[Illustration: SKETCH-MAP OF EGYPT.]

       *       *       *       *       *




EGYPT

CHAPTER 1

ITS ANTIQUITY


Every boy or girl who has read the history of Joseph must often have
wondered what kind of a country Egypt might be, and tried to picture
to themselves the scenes so vividly suggested in the Bible story.

It must have been a startling experience for the little shepherd boy,
who, stolen from his home among the quiet hills of Canaan, so suddenly
found himself an inmate of a palace, and, in his small way, a
participator in the busy whirl of life of a royal city.

No contrast could possibly have been greater than between his simple
pastoral life spent in tending the flocks upon the hillsides and the
magnificence of the city of Pharaoh, and how strange a romance it is
to think of the little slave boy eventually becoming the virtual ruler
of the most wealthy and most highly cultured country in the world!

And then in course of time the very brothers who had so cruelly sold
him into bondage were forced by famine to come to Joseph as suppliants
for food, and, in their descendants, presently to become the meanest
slaves in the land, persecuted and oppressed until their final
deliverance by Moses.

How long ago it all seems when we read these old Bible stories! Yet,
when 4,000 years ago necessity compelled Abraham, with Sarah his wife,
to stay awhile in Egypt, they were lodged at Tanis, a royal city
founded by one of a succession of kings which for 3,000 years before
Abraham's day had governed the land, and modern discoveries have
proved that even before _that_ time there were other kings and an
earlier civilization.

How interesting it is to know that to-day we may still find records of
these early Bible times in the sculptured monuments which are
scattered all over the land, and to know that in the hieroglyphic
writings which adorn the walls of tombs or temples many of the events
we there read about are narrated.

Many of the temples were built by the labour of the oppressed
Israelites, others were standing long before Moses confounded their
priests or besought Pharaoh to liberate his people. We may ourselves
stand in courts where, perhaps, Joseph took part in some temple rite,
while the huge canal called the "Bahr Yusef" (or river of Joseph),
which he built 6,300 years ago, still supplies the province Fayoum
with water.

Ancient Tanis also, from whose tower Abraham saw "wonders in the field
of Zoan," still exists in a heap of ruins, extensive enough to show
how great a city it had been, and from its mounds the writer has often
witnessed the strange mirage which excited the wonder of the
patriarch.

Everywhere throughout the land are traces of the children of Israel,
many of whose descendants still remain in the land of Goshen, and in
every instance where fresh discovery has thrown light upon the subject
the independent record of history found in hieroglyph or papyrus
confirms the Bible narrative, so that we may be quite sure when we
read these old stories that they are not merely legends, open to
doubt, but are the true histories of people who actually lived.

As you will see from what I have told you, Egypt is perhaps the oldest
country in the world--the oldest, that is, in civilization. No one
quite knows how old it is, and no record has been discovered to tell
us.

All through the many thousands of years of its history Egypt has had a
great influence upon other nations, and although the ancient Persians,
Greeks, and Romans successively dominated it, these conquering races
have each in turn disappeared, while Egypt goes on as ever, and its
people remain.

Egypt has been described as the centre of the world, and if we look at
the map we will see how true this is. Situated midway between Europe,
Africa, and Asia in the old days of land caravans, most of the trade
between these continents passed through her hands, while her ports on
the Mediterranean controlled the sea trade of the Levant.

All this helped to make Egypt wealthy, and gave it great political
importance, so that very early in the world's history it enjoyed a
greater prosperity and a higher civilization than any of its
neighbours. Learned men from all countries were drawn to it in search
of fresh knowledge, for nowhere else were there such seats of
learning as in the Nile cities, and it is acknowledged that the highly
trained priesthood of the Pharaohs practised arts and sciences of
which we in these days are ignorant, and have failed to discover.

In 30 B.C. the last of the Pharaohs disappeared, and for 400
years the Romans ruled in Egypt, many of their emperors restoring the
ancient temples as well as building new ones; but all the Roman
remains in Egypt are poor in comparison with the real Egyptian art,
and, excepting for a few small temples, little now remains of their
buildings but the heaps of rubbish which surround the magnificent
monuments of Egypt's great period.

During the Roman occupation Christianity became the recognized
religion of the country, and to-day the Copts (who are the real
descendants of the ancient Egyptians) still preserve the primitive
faith of those early times, and, with the Abyssinians, are perhaps the
oldest Christian church now existing.

The greatest change in the history of Egypt, however, and the one that
has left the most permanent effect upon it, was the Mohammedan
invasion in A.D. 640, and I must tell you something about
this, because to the great majority of people who visit Egypt the two
great points of interest are its historical remains and the beautiful
art of the Mohammedans. The times of the Pharaohs are in the past, and
have the added interest of association with the Bible; this period of
antiquity is a special study for the historian and the few who are
able to decipher hieroglyphic writing, but the Mohammedan era, though
commencing nearly 200 years before Egbert was crowned first King of
England, continues to the present day, and the beautiful mosques, as
their churches are called (many of which were built long before there
were any churches in our own country), are still used by the Moslems.

Nothing in history is so remarkable as the sudden rise to power of the
followers of Mohammed. An ill-taught, half-savage people, coming from
an unknown part of Arabia, in a very few years they had become masters
of Syria, Asia Minor, Persia, and Egypt, and presently extended their
religion all through North Africa, and even conquered the southern
half of Spain, and to-day the Faith of Islam, as their religion is
called, is the third largest in the world.

Equally surprising as their accession to power is the very beautiful
art they created, first in Egypt and then throughout Tunis, Algeria,
Morocco, and Spain. The Moslem churches in Cairo are extremely
beautiful, and of a style quite unlike anything that the world had
known before. Some of my readers, perhaps, may have seen pictures of
them and of the Alhambra in Spain, probably the most elegant and
ornate palace ever built.

No country in the world gives one so great a sense of age as Egypt,
and although it has many beauties, and the life of the people to-day is
most picturesque, as we will presently see, it is its extreme
antiquity which most excites the imagination, for, while the whole
Bible history from Abraham to the Apostles covers a period of only
2,000 years, the known history of Egypt commenced as far back as
6,000 years ago! From the sphinx at Ghizeh, which is so ancient that
no one knows its origin, to the great dam at Assuan, monument of its
present day, each period of its history has left _some_ record, some
tomb or temple, which we may study, and it is this more than anything
else which makes Egypt so attractive to thoughtful people.




CHAPTER II

THE LAND


It would naturally be supposed that a country which for so long a time
exercised such influence upon the world at large would be extensive
and densely populated.

Neither is the case, however, for though upon the map Egypt appears to
be a large country, the greater part consists of rock and burning
sand, and is practically uninhabited.

The _real_ land of Egypt is the narrow strip of alluvial soil which
forms the Nile banks, and the fertile delta which spreads fan-like
from Cairo to the sea. These two divisions of the land practically
constitute Upper and Lower Egypt. In area each is less than Wales,
while the total population of the country is not twice that of London.

It is its extreme fertility which has made Egypt prosperous, and
throughout the world's history it has been a granary for the nations,
for while drought and famine might affect other lands, Egypt has
always been able to supply food to its neighbours.

How does this come about? Let me try and explain.

Thousands of years ago, when the world was very young, the whole land
was covered by the sea, which is plainly shown by the fossils
embedded in the rocks, and which lie scattered over its highest
deserts.

As the sea receded, the Nile, then a mighty river, began to cut its
channel through the rock, and poured into the sea somewhere about
where Cairo now stands.

As the ages passed the river cut deeper and deeper into its rocky bed,
leaving on either side the mountains which hem in its narrow valley,
and at the same time depositing along its banks and in the delta
forming at its mouth the rich alluvial mud which it had carried with
it from the heart of Africa.

In this way the Egypt of history has been formed, but, surrounded as
it is by sandy wastes, and often swept by hot desert winds, no rain
falls to bring life to the fields, or enable the rich soil to produce
the crops which are its source of wealth.

Nature provides a remedy, however, and the river which first formed
the land is also its life-giver, for every year the Nile overflows its
banks, re-fertilizing the soil, and filling the canals and reservoirs
with water sufficient for the year's needs, without which Egypt would
remain a barren, sun-baked land, instead of the fertile country it is.

The first view of Egypt as it is approached from the sea is
disappointing, for the low-lying delta is hardly raised at all above
sea-level, and its monotony is only broken by an occasional hillock or
the lofty minarets of the coast towns.

[Illustration: AN IRRIGATED FIELD.]

Formerly the Nile had several mouths, and from many seaports Egypt
carried on its trade with the outside world. To-day only Rosetta and
Damietta remain to give their names to the two branches by which
alone the Nile now seeks the sea. These interesting seaports, mediæval
and richly picturesque, are no longer the prosperous cities they once
were, for railways have diverted traffic from the Nile, and nearly all
the seaborne trade of Egypt is now carried from Alexandria or Port
Said, the northern entrance to the Suez Canal, and it is by either of
these two ports that modern visitors make their entry into Egypt.

Alexandria is interesting as the city founded by Alexander the Great,
but with the exception of Pompey's pillar and its ancient catacombs
has little attraction for visitors. The town is almost entirely
Italian in character, and is peopled by so many different races that
it hardly seems Egypt at all; boys, however, would enjoy a visit to
the Ras-el-Tīn Fort, which figured so largely in the bombardment of
Alexandria, and away to the east, near Rosetta, is Aboukīr Bay, the
scene of a more stirring fight, for it was here that, in A.D.
1798, Nelson destroyed the French fleet,[1] and secured for Britain
the command of the Mediterranean.

[Footnote 1: In the "Battle of the Nile."]

After the monotony of a sea voyage, landing at Port Said is amusing.
The steamer anchors in mid-stream, and is quickly surrounded by gaily
painted shore boats, whose swarthy occupants--half native, half
Levantine--clamber on board, and clamour and wrangle for the
possession of your baggage. They are noisy fellows, but once your
boatman is selected, landing at the little stages which lie in the
harbour is quickly effected, and you and your belongings are safely
deposited at the station, and your journey to Cairo begun.

Port Said is a rambling town, whose half brick, half timber buildings
have a general air of dilapidation and unfinish which is depressing.
The somewhat picturesque principal bazaar street is soon exhausted,
and excepting for the imposing offices of the Suez Canal Company, and
the fine statue to De Lesseps, recently erected on the breakwater,
Port Said has little else to excite the curiosity of the visitors;
built upon a mud-bank formed of Suez Canal dredgings, its existence is
its most interesting feature, and the white breakers of the
Mediterranean, above which it is so little raised, seem ever ready to
engulf it as they toss and tumble upon its narrow beach.

Leaving Port Said behind, the train travels slowly along the canal
bank, and we begin to enter Egypt.

On the right the quiet waters of Lake Menzala, fringed with tall reeds
and eucalyptus trees, stretches to the far horizon, where quaintly
shaped fishing-boats disappear with their cargoes towards distant
Damietta. Thousands of wild birds, duck of all kinds, ibis and
pelican, fish in the shallows, or with the sea-gulls wheel in dense
masses in the air, for this is a reservation as a breeding-green for
wild-fowl, where they are seldom, if ever, disturbed.

On the left is the Suez Canal, the world's highway to the Far East,
and ships of all nations pass within a stone's throw of your train.
Between, and in strange contrast with the blueness of the canal, runs
a little watercourse, reed fringed, and turbid in its rapid flow.
This is the "sweet-water" canal, and gives its name to one of our
engagements with Arabi's army, and which, from the far-distant Nile,
brings fresh water to supply Port Said and the many stations on its
route.

To the south and east stretches the mournful desert in which the
Israelites began their forty years of wandering, and which thousands
of Moslems annually traverse on their weary pilgrimage to Mecca; while
in all directions is mirage, so perfect in its deception as to mislead
the most experienced of travellers at times.

Roaming over the desert which hems in the delta, solitary shepherds,
strangely clad and wild-looking, herd their flocks of sheep and goats
which browse upon the scrub. These are the descendants of those same
Ishmaelites who sold Joseph into Egypt, and the occasional encampment
of some Bedouin tribe shows us something of the life which the
patriarchs might have led.

In contrast with the desert, the delta appears very green and fertile,
for we are quickly in the land of Goshen, most beautiful, perhaps, of
all the delta provinces.

The country is very flat and highly cultivated. In all directions, as
far as the eye can see, broad stretches of corn wave in the gentle
breeze, while brilliant patches of clover or the quieter-coloured
onion crops vary the green of the landscape. The scent of flowering
bean-fields fills the air, and the hum of wild bees is heard above the
other sounds of the fields. Palm groves lift their feathery plumes
towards the sky, and mulberry-trees and dark-toned tamarisks shade the
water-wheels, which, with incessant groanings, are continually turned
by blindfolded bullocks. Villages and little farmsteads are frequent,
and everywhere are the people, men, women, and children, working on
the land which so richly rewards their labour.

The soil is very rich, and, given an ample water-supply, produces two
or three crops a year, while the whole surface is so completely under
cultivation that there is no room left for grass or wild flowers to
grow. Many crops are raised besides those I have already mentioned,
such as maize, barley, rice, and flax, and in the neighbourhood of
towns and villages radishes, cucumbers, melons, and tomatoes are
plentifully grown. Formerly wheat was Egypt's principal crop, but
since its introduction by Mohammed Ali in A.D. 1820, _cotton_
has taken first place amongst its products, and is of so fine a
quality that it is the dearest in the world, and is used almost
entirely for mixing with silk or the manufacture of sateen. Cotton,
however, is very exhausting to the soil, and where it is grown the
land must have its intervals of rest.

No sooner is one crop gathered than yokes of oxen, drawing strangely
shaped wooden ploughs, prepare the land for another; and the newly
turned soil looks black against the vivid clover fields, in which
tethered cattle graze; while large flocks of sheep of many colours, in
which brown predominates, follow the ploughs and feed upon the
stubble, for the native is as economical as he is industrious.

Peopled by a race of born farmers, and in soil and climate provided by
Nature with all that could be desired for crop-raising, only rain is
lacking to bring the fields to fruition, and from the earliest times a
great system of irrigation has existed in Egypt. It is curious to see
in many directions the white lateen sails of boats which appear to be
sailing over the fields. In reality they are sailing on the canals
which intersect the country in all directions, and by means of
thousands of water-wheels and pumps supply the land with water. Though
the Nile overflows its banks, its inundation does not cover the whole
land; so great arterial canals which are filled at high Nile have been
constructed throughout the country. From these, smaller canals branch
right and left, carrying the water to the furthest corners of the
land, while such boundary marks as exist to separate different estates
or farms usually take the form of a watercourse.

These canal banks form the highways of the country, and are thronged
by travellers and laden camels, while large flocks of sheep and goats
are herded along their sloping sides. Every here and there are little
enclosures, spread with clean straw or mats, and surrounded by a fence
of cornstalks or low walls of mud. These are the holy places where in
the intervals of work the devout Moslem may say his prayers; and,
often bowered by shady trees, a whitewashed dome marks the
burial-place of some saint or village notable.

The scenery of the delta, though flat, is luxuriant; for Mohammed Ali
not only introduced cotton into Egypt, but compelled the people to
plant trees, so that the landscape is varied by large groves of
date-palms, and the sycamores and other trees which surround the
villages and give shade to the paths and canal banks. It is a pastoral
land, luxuriantly green; and how beautiful it is as the night falls,
and the last of the sunset lingers in the dew-laden air, wreathed with
the smoke of many fires; and, as the stars one by one appear in the
darkening sky, and the labour of the field ceases, the lowing cattle
wend their slow ways toward the villages and the bull-frogs in their
thousands raise their evensong. No scenery in the world has, to my
mind, such mellow and serene beauty as these farm-lands of Lower
Egypt, and in a later chapter I will tell you more about them, and of
the simple people whose life is spent in the fields.




CHAPTER III

CAIRO--I


Usually its capital may be taken as typical of its country; but in
Egypt this is not so. Cairo is essentially different from anything
else in Egypt, not only in its buildings and architecture, but in the
type and mode of life of its inhabitants.

How shall I give you any real idea of a city which is often considered
to be the most beautiful Oriental capital in the world, as it is
certainly one of the most interesting? From a distance, looking across
the fields of Shoubra,[2] it is very beautiful, especially at sunset,
when beyond the dark green foliage of the sycamore and cypress trees
which rise above the orange groves, the domes and minarets of the
native quarter gleam golden in the sunlight. Behind is the citadel,
crowned by Mohammed Ali's tomb-mosque of white marble, whose tall twin
minarets seem to tower above the rosy-tinted heights of the Mokattam
Hills. Even here the noise of the city reaches you in a subdued hum,
for Cairo is not only a large city, but it is densely populated, and
contains nearly a twelfth part of the whole population of Egypt. Away
towards the sunset the pyramids stand out clearly against the glowing
sky, and the tall masts and sails of the Nile boats reach high above
the palm groves and buildings which screen the river from view.

[Footnote 2: A distant suburb of Cairo.]

Cairo consists of two distinct and widely different parts, the
Esbikiyeh and Ismailieh quarters of the west end, built for and almost
entirely occupied by Europeans, and the purely native town, whose
streets and bazaars, mosques and palaces, have remained practically
unchanged for centuries.

At one time the European quarters were in many ways charming, though
too much like some fashionable continental town to be altogether
picturesque; but of late years the shady avenues and gardens of the
west end have entirely disappeared to make way for streets of
commercial buildings, while the new districts of Kasr-el-Dubara and
Ghezireh have arisen to house the well-to-do. Our interest in Cairo,
therefore, is centred in the native quarters, where miles of streets
and alleys, rich in Arabesque buildings, are untouched except by the
mellowing hand of Time.

It is difficult at first to form any true idea of native Cairo; its
life is so varied and its interests so diverse that the new-comer is
bewildered.

Types of many races, clad in strange Eastern costumes, crowd the
narrow streets, which are overlooked by many beautiful buildings whose
dark shadows lend additional glory to the sunlight. Richly carved
doorways give glimpses of cool courts and gardens within the houses,
while awnings of many colours shade the bazaars and shopping streets.

[Illustration: AN ARAB CAFÉ, CAIRO.]

Heavily laden camels and quaint native carts with difficulty thread
their way through the crowd, amongst which little children, clad in
the gayest of dresses, play their games. Goats and sheep pick up a
living in the streets, clearing it of garbage, and often feeding more
generously, though surreptitiously, from a fruit or vegetable shop.
Hawks and pigeons wheel and circle in the air, which is filled with
the scent of incense and the sound of the street cries. Everywhere is
movement and bustle, and the glowing colour of the buildings and
costumes of every tint and texture.

Let us study a little more closely the individual types and
occupations that make up the life of the streets, and a pleasant way
in which to do so is to seat oneself on the high bench of some native
café, where, undisturbed by the traffic, we may watch the passers-by.

The cafés themselves play an important part in the life of the people,
being a rendezvous not only for the refreshment provided, but for
gossip and the interchange of news. They are very numerous all over
the city, and are generally fronted by three or more wooden archways
painted in some bright colour and open to the street. Outside are the
"dekkas," or high benches, on which, sitting cross-legged, the
customer enjoys his coffee or his pipe. Indoors are a few chairs, and
the square tiled platform on which are placed the cooking-pots and
little charcoal fire of the café-keeper. Generally an awning of canvas
covered with patches of coloured cloth screens you from the sun, or
gives shelter from the occasional winter showers which clear the
streets of passengers and render them a sea of mud, for the streets
are unpaved and no drainage exists to carry off the surface water.

The café-owner is always polite, and glad to see you, and the coffee
he makes is nearly always excellent, though few of his European guests
would care to regale themselves with the curiously shaped water-pipes
with which the native intoxicates himself with opium or "hashīsh,"
and which are used indiscriminately by all the customers.

Like most of the small tradesmen, our host is clad in a "gelabieh," or
long gown of white or blue cotton, gathered round the waist by a
girdle of coloured cloth. Stuck jauntily on the back of his head is
the red "tarbūsh," or fez, universal in the towns, or, if married,
he wears a turban of fine white cotton; his shoes are of red or yellow
leather, but are generally carried in his hand if the streets are
muddy.

And now, having noticed our café and our host, let us sit comfortably
and try and distinguish the various types which go to form the crowd
which from dawn to dark throngs the thoroughfares.

First of all it will be noticed how many different trades are carried
on in the streets, most prominent of all being that of the
water-sellers, for Cairo is hot and dusty, and water is in constant
demand.

There are several grades of water-carriers. First, the "sakka," who
carries on his back a goat-skin filled with water; one of the
fore-legs forms the spout, which is simply held tight in the hand to
prevent the water from escaping. He is the poorest of them all,
barefooted and wearing an often ragged blue gelabieh, while a leather
apron protects his back from the dripping goat-skin. He it is who
waters the streets and fills the "zīrs," or filters, in the shops,
a number of shop-keepers combining to employ him to render this
service to their section of a street.

A superior grade is the "khamali," who carries upon his back a large
earthen pot of filtered water. When he wishes to fill the brass
drinking-cups, which he cleverly tinkles as he walks, he has simply to
bend forward until the water runs out of the spout above his shoulder
and is caught in one of the cups, and it is interesting to notice that
he seldom spills a drop.

Then there is that swaggering and often handsome fellow clad in red,
and with a coloured scarf around his head, who, with shoulders well
set back, carries, slung in a broad leather belt, a terra-cotta jar.
This is the "sussi," who sells liquorice water, or a beverage made
from prunes, and which he hands to his customers in a dainty blue and
white china bowl.

The highest grade of all is the "sherbutli," also gaily dressed, who
from an enormous green glass bottle, brass mounted, and cooled by a
large lump of ice held in a cradle at the neck, dispenses sherbet,
lemonade, or other cooling drink. Each of these classes of
water-seller is well patronized, for Egypt is a thirsty land.

Here comes a bread-seller, whose fancy loaves and cakes are made in
rings and strung upon wands which project from the rim of a basket; or
on a tray of wicker-work or queer little donkey-cart are piled the
flat unleavened loaves of the people.

To remind us of the chief baker's dream, the pastry-cook still cries
his wares, which, carried in baskets on his head, are often raided by
the thieving hawk or crow, while delicious fruits and fresh vegetables
are vended from barrows, much like the coster trade in London.

Many of the passers-by are well to do, shop-keepers and merchants,
clothed in flowing "khaftan" of coloured cloth or silk, over which,
hanging loosely from their shoulders, is the black goat's wool
"arbiyeh," or cloak.

The shops also make a gay addition to the general colour scheme. Of
these the fruit shop is perhaps the prettiest; here rosy apples and
juicy oranges, or pink-fleshed water-melons, are tastefully arranged
in baskets or on shelves covered with papers of different tints. Even
the tallow-chandler renders his shop attractive by means of festoons
of candles, some of enormous size, and all tinted in patterns, while
the more important shopping streets are one continuous display of many
coloured silks and cotton goods, the glittering wares of the jeweller
or coppersmith, and the gay trappings of the saddler.

In between the shops may often be noticed small doorways, whose white
plaster is decorated by some bright though crude design in many
colours; this is the "hammam," or public bath, while the shop of the
barber, chief gossip and story-teller of his quarter, is easily
distinguished by the fine-meshed net hung across the entrance as a
protection against flies, for flies abound in Cairo, which, however
disagreeable they may be, is perhaps fortunate in a country where the
laws of sanitation are so lightly regarded.

Noise enters largely into street life, and the native is invariably
loud voiced. No bargain is concluded without an apparent squabble, and
every tradesman in the street calls his wares, while drivers of
vehicles are incessant in their cries of warning to foot-passengers.
All the sounds are not unmusical, however, for from the minarets comes
the "muezzin's" sweet call to prayer, to mingle with the jingling
bells and the tinkling of the cups of the water-sellers.

Then the donkey-boys, everywhere to be found in Cairo, add much to the
liveliness of the streets. Their donkeys are fine animals, usually
grey and very large, and their bodies are shaved in such a manner as
to leave patterns on the legs and snout, which are often coloured. The
saddles are of red leather and cloth, and from them hang long tassels
which swing as they canter through the streets, while the musical
rattle of coloured beads and the chains of copper and brass which all
donkeys wear around their necks, add their quota to the many noises of
the streets, through which in a low murmur one may distinguish the
drone of flies.

Among all the bustle and confusion, shimmering lights, and varied
colour which constitute a Cairo street scene, the native woman passes
with graceful dignity. Her features are hidden by the "bourka," or
veil, which is generally worn, but her beautiful eyes fascinate; nor
does the voluminous cloak she wears entirely conceal the dainty, if
brilliant, clothing beneath, nor the extreme beauty of her well-shaped
hands and feet.

Quite as picturesque as the life of the streets are the buildings
which enclose them, and the great glory of Cairo consists of its
bazaars and mosques and old-time palaces.

The streets are usually irregular in width and often winding, and are
sometimes so narrow as to render driving impossible, for when Cairo
was built wheeled vehicles were not in use, and space within its walls
was limited. The houses are very lofty, and are built of limestone or
rubble covered with white plaster, and the lower courses are often
coloured in stripes of yellow, white, and red. Handsome carved
doorways open from the street, and the doors are panelled in bold
arabesque design, or enriched by metal studs and knockers of bronze.
The windows on the ground-floor, which are usually small, are closed
by a wooden or iron grating, and are placed too high in the wall for
passengers to look through them, and frequently, even in the best
houses, small recesses in the walls serve as shops.

The upper storeys usually project beyond the ground-floor, and are
supported on corbels or brackets of stone, which also are frequently
carved. This method of building has two advantages, for the projecting
upper storeys afford a little shade in the streets, and at the same
time give greater space to the houses without encroaching upon the
already narrow thoroughfares.

These upper storeys are very picturesque, for all the windows are
filled with lattice-work, and large window balconies supported on
carved wooden beams project far over the street. These are called
"mushrabiyehs," a name which is derived from an Arabic word which
means "the place for drink." Originally they were simply small cages
of plain lattice-work in which the water jars were placed to cool, but
as prosperity increased and the homes of the people became more
ornate, first the edges of the lattice-work were cut so as to form a
pattern, and the little cages presently developed into these large
balconies, which in place of simple lattice-work were enclosed by
screens formed of innumerable small pieces of turned wood built up so
as to form designs of great beauty, and behind which the ladies of the
harīm might sit and enjoy the air and the animation of the streets
unseen.

Unfortunately this beautiful work is fast disappearing; visitors have
discovered how adaptable it is to home decoration, and the dealers in
Cairo eagerly buy up all that can be obtained to be converted into
those many articles of Arab furniture with which we are now so
familiar in England.

Picturesque as all the streets of Cairo are, they are not all so
animated as those I have described, and in many quarters one may ride
for miles through streets so narrow that no vehicle could pass, and so
silent as to appear deserted. Very often their projecting upper
storeys almost touch across the street, and make it so dark as to be
almost like a tunnel. The handsome doorways also are often half buried
in the débris which for three hundred years or more has been
accumulating in the narrow lanes, so much so that in many cases the
doors cannot be opened at all. There is an air of decay and sadness
in many of these quarters, for these half ruinous houses, once the
palaces of the Memlūks, are now the habitations of the lowest of
the people, and poverty and squalor reign where once had been gaiety
and the fashionable life of Cairo.




CHAPTER IV

CAIRO--II


Fascinating though the streets of Cairo are, continuous sight-seeing
in the heat and glare is tiring, and it is always a pleasant change to
escape from the movement and bustle outside, and enjoy the quietude of
some cool mosque or palace courtyard.

Having described the exterior of the native house, it will interest
you to know what it is like inside. Entering from the street, one
usually has to descend one or more steps to the entrance hall or
passage, which, in the case of the older houses, is invariably built
with at least one turning, so that no one from the street could see
into the interior court or garden should the door be open, for privacy
was always jealously guarded by the Mohammedans. On one side is a
raised stone platform, seat for the "boab" or door-keeper, and other
servants of the house. Passing through this passage, we reach the
courtyard, which is often very large and open to the sky, and into
which most of the windows of the house open. On one side is a large
recess or bay raised slightly above the pavement of the court, and
furnished with benches of carved wood. The beams of the ceiling and
handsome cornice are richly ornamented with carving and illumination,
and the heavy beam which spans the entrance is supported by a pillar
of elegant shape and proportion. Here, or in the "mandara"[3] inside
the house, the Arab host receives his male guests. On the most shady
side of the court are placed the "zīrs," while several doors lead
to the harīm, as the ladies' quarters are called, and the various
offices and reception-rooms of the house. These doors are always
panelled in elaborate geometrical designs, and the principal one,
which is reached by a short flight of stone steps, is set in a lofty
recess, the trefoil head of which is richly carved. This gives access
to the reception-room on the first floor. One side is entirely open to
the air, and through three archways connected by a low balustrade of
perforated stonework overlooks the court. The floor is paved in tiles
or marble of various colours, usually in some large design, in the
centre of which is a shallow basin in which a fountain plays. Round
the three walls is a raised daīs called "lewan," covered with rugs
or mattresses, on which the guests recline. Little recesses in the
walls, which in the homes of the wealthy are elaborately decorated
with mosaic or tile work, contain the water jars, and the "tisht wa
abrīk," or water-jug and basin, used for the ceremonial washing of
hands before meat. The walls are usually plain, and are only broken by
the "dulab," or wall cupboard, in which pipes and other articles are
kept. The ceiling is heavily beamed and illuminated, or covered with
appliqué work in some rich design, the spaces variously coloured or
picked out in gold.

[Footnote 3: Guest chamber.]

For cold weather another similar room is provided in the interior of the
house much as the one I have described, but with the addition of a
cupola or dome over the fountain, while the large windows, in the
recesses of which couches are placed, are filled with the beautiful
"mushrabiyeh" work we have noticed from the streets, or by stained glass
set in perforated plaster work. These rooms contain practically no
furniture, excepting the low "sahniyeh," or tray, upon which
refreshments are served, and the copper brazier which contains the
charcoal fire, but from the ceiling hang numbers of beautifully-wrought
lamps of metal and coloured glass. We can imagine how rich a scene such
a room would form when illuminated for the reception of guests whose
gorgeous Oriental costumes accord so well with its handsome interior,
while the finishing touch is given by the performance of the musicians
and singing girls with which the guests are entertained, leading one
instinctively to call to mind many similar scenes so wonderfully
described in the "Arabian Nights." Many of the adventures of its heroes
and heroines are suggested by the secret passages which the wall
cupboards often hide, and may well have occurred in houses we may visit
to-day in Cairo, for, more than any other, Cairo is the city of the
"Arabian Nights," and in our walks one may at any moment meet the
hunchback or the pastry-cook, or the one-eyed calender, whose adventures
fills so many pages of that fascinating book; while the summary justice
and drastic measures of the old khalifs are recalled by the many
instruments of torture or of death which may still be seen hanging in
the bazaars or from the city gates.

Everyone who goes to Cairo is astonished at the great number and
beauty of its mosques, nearly every street having one or more.
Altogether there are some 500 or more in Cairo, as well as a great
number of lesser shrines where the people worship. I will tell you how
this comes about. We have often read in the "Arabian Nights" in what a
high-handed and frequently unjust manner the property of some poor
unfortunate would be seized and given to another. This was very much
the case in Cairo in the olden days, and khalifs and cadis, muftis and
pashas, were not very scrupulous about whose money or possessions they
administered, and even to-day in some Mohammedan countries it is not
always wise for a man to grow rich.

[Illustration: A MOSQUE INTERIOR.]

And so it was that in order to escape robbery in the name of law many
wealthy merchants preferred to build during their lifetime a mosque or
other public building, while money left for this purpose was regarded
as sacred, and so the many beautiful sebīls and mosques of Cairo
came into existence.

Egypt is so old that even the Roman times appear new, and one is
tempted to regard these glorious buildings of the Mohammedan era as
only of yesterday. Yet many of the mosques which people visit and
admire are older than any church or cathedral in England. We all think
of Lincoln Cathedral or Westminster Abbey as being very venerable
buildings, and so they are; but long before they were built the
architecture of the Mohammedans in Egypt had developed into a perfect
style, and produced many of the beautiful mosques in which the Cairene
prays to-day.

As a rule the mosque was also the tomb of its founder, and the dome
was designed as a canopy over his burial-place, so that when a mosque
is _domed_ we know it to be the mausoleum of some great man, while the
beautiful minaret or tower is common to all mosques, whether
tomb-mosque or not.

One of the most striking features of a mosque is the doorway, which is
placed in a deep arched recess, very lofty and highly ornamented. A
flight of stone steps lead from the street to the door, which is often
of hammered bronze and green with age, and from a beam which spans the
recess hang curious little lamps, which are lit on fete days.

At the top of the steps is a low railing or barrier which no one may
cross _shod_, for beyond this is holy ground, where, as in the old
days of Scripture, every one must "put off his shoes from off his
feet."

The interior of the mosque is often very rich and solemn. It is
usually built in the form of a square courtyard, open to the sky, in
which is the "hanafieh," or tank, where "the faithful" wash before
prayers. The court is surrounded by cloisters supported by innumerable
pillars, or else lofty horseshoe arches lead into deep bays or
recesses, the eastern one of which, called the "kibleh," is the
holiest, and corresponds to our chancel, and in the centre of the wall
is the "mirhab," or niche, which is in the direction of Mecca, and the
point towards which the Moslem prays.

Marble pavements, beautiful inlay of ivory and wood, stained-glass
windows, and elaborately decorated ceilings and domes, beautify the
interior, and go to form a rich but subdued coloured scheme, solemn
and restful, and of which perhaps my picture will give you some idea.

Attached to most mosques is a sebīl, also beautiful in design. The
lower story has a fountain for the use of wayfarers; above, in a
bright room open to the air, is a little school, where the boys and
girls of the quarter learn to recite sundry passages from the Koran,
and which until recently was practically all the education they
received.

And now I must tell you something about the bazaars, which, after the
mosques, are the most interesting relics in Cairo, and in many cases
quite as old. First, I may say that the word "bazaar" means "bargain,"
and as in the East a fixed price is unusual, and anything is worth
just what can be got for it, making a purchase is generally a matter
of patience, and one may often spend days in acquiring some simple
article of no particular value. An exception is the trade in copper
ware, which is sold by weight, and it is a common practice among the
poorer classes to invest their small savings in copper vessels of
which they have the benefit, and which can readily be sold again
should money be wanted. This trade is carried on in a very picturesque
street, called the "Sûk-en-Nahassīn," or street of the coppersmiths,
where in tiny little shops 4 or 5 feet square, most of the copper and
brass industry of Cairo is carried on. Opening out of this street are
other bazaars, many very ancient, and each built for some special
trade. So we have the shoemaker's bazaar, the oil, spice, Persian and
goldsmith's bazaars, and many others, each different in character, and
generally interesting as architecture. The Persian bazaar is now
nearly demolished, and the "Khan Khalili," once the centre of the
carpet trade, and the most beautiful of all, is now split up into a
number of small curio shops, for the people are becoming Europeanized,
and the Government, alas! appear to have no interest in the
preservation of buildings of great historic interest and beauty.

One other feature of old Cairo I must notice before leaving the
subject. In the old days of long caravan journeys, when merchants from
Persia, India, and China brought their wares to Cairo overland, it was
their custom to travel in strong companies capable of resisting
possible attacks by the wild desert tribes, and in Cairo special
"khans," or inns, were built to accommodate the different
nationalities or trades. In the central court the horses and camels of
the different caravans were tethered; surrounding it, and raised
several feet above the ground, were numerous bays in which the goods
were exposed for sale. Above, several storeys provided sleeping
accommodation for the travellers. Like the bazaars, many of these
khans are very ancient, and are most interesting architecturally as
well as being fast disappearing relics of days which, until the
introduction of railways and steamers, perpetuated in our own time
conditions of life and trade which had continued uninterruptedly since
that time so long ago when Joseph first built his store cities and
granaries in Egypt.

It is impossible in a few pages to convey any real impression of
Cairo, and I have only attempted to describe a few of its most
characteristic features. There is, however, a great deal more to
see--the citadel, built by that same Saladīn against whom our
crusaders fought in Palestine, and which contains many ancient mosques
and other buildings of historic interest, and the curious well called
Joseph's Well, where, by means of many hundreds of stone steps, the
visitor descends into the heart of the rock upon which the citadel is
built, and which until recently supplied it with water. Close by is
the parapet from which the last of the Memlūks made his desperate
leap for freedom, and became sole survivor of his class so
treacherously murdered by Mohammed Ali; behind, crowning the Mokhattam
Hills, is the little fort built by Napoleon the Great to command the
city, while in every direction are views almost impossible of
description. To the east is that glorious cemetery known as the "tombs
of the khalifs," which contains many of the finest architectural gems
of mediæval Egypt; to the west is Fostat, the original "city of the
tent," from which Cairo sprang, while over the rubbish heaps of old
Babylon, the Roman aqueduct stretches towards Rhoda, that beautiful
garden island on whose banks tradition has it that the infant Moses
was found, while still further across the river, sail-dotted and
gleaming in the sun, the great Pyramids mark the limit of the Nile
Valley and the commencement of that enormous desert which stretches to
the Atlantic Ocean. Looking south, past Memphis and the Pyramids of
Sakkara and Darshūr, the Nile loses itself in the distant heat
haze, while to the north is stretched before us the fertile plains of
the Delta.

[Illustration: A STREET IN CAIRO.]

At our feet lies the wonderful Arab town, whose domes and minarets
rise high above the dwellings which screen the streets from view, but
whose seething life is evidenced by the dull roar which reaches you
even at this distance. It is a city of sunlight, rich in buildings of
absorbing interest and ablaze with colour. As for the people, ignorant
and noisy though they are, they have much good-humour and simple
kindness in their natures, and it is worth notice that a stranger may
walk about in safety in the most squalid quarters of the city, and of
what European capital could this be said?




CHAPTER V

THE NILE--I


I have already told you how the land of Egypt was first formed by the
river which is still its source of life; but before saying anything
about the many monuments on its banks or the floating life it carries,
I want you to look at the map with me for a moment, and see what we
can learn of the character of the river itself.

The Nile is one of the world's _great_ rivers, and is about 3,400
miles long. As you will see, it has its source in the overflow from
Lake Victoria Nyanza, when it flows in a generally northern direction
for many hundreds of miles, receiving several tributaries, such as the
River Sobat and the Bahr-el-Ghazal, whose waters, combining with the
Bahr-el-Abiad, or White Nile, as it is called, maintain the steady
constant flow of the river.

Eventually it is joined by the Bahr-el-Azrak, or Blue Nile, which
rises among the mountains of Abyssinia and enters the White Nile at
Khartūm.

During a great part of the year this branch is dry, but filled by the
melting snow and torrential rains of early spring, the Blue Nile
becomes a surging torrent, and pours its muddy water, laden with
alluvial soil and forest débris, into the main river, causing it to
rise far above its ordinary level, and so bringing about that annual
overflow which in Egypt takes the place of rain.

It is certain that the ancient Egyptians knew nothing as to the source
of their great water-supply,[4] their knowledge being limited to the
combined river which begins at Khartūm, and for 1,750 miles flows
uninterruptedly, and, with the exception of the River Atbara, without
further tributaries until it reaches the sea; and it is curious to
think that for every one of these 1,750 miles the Nile is a _slowly
diminishing_ stream, water-wheels, steam-pumps, and huge arterial
canals distributing its water in all directions over the land. The
large number of dams and regulators constructed within recent years
still further aid this distribution of the Nile water, and it is a
remarkable and almost incredible fact that with the closing of the
latest barrage at Damietta, the Nile will be so completely controlled
that of all the flow of water which pours so magnificently through the
cataracts not a drop will reach the sea!

[Footnote 4: Many of the ancients believed the First Cataract to be
its source.]

One can easily understand the reverence with which the ancients
regarded their mysterious river, which, rising no one knew where, year
by year continued its majestic flow, and by its regular inundations
brought wealth to the country, and it is no wonder that the rising of
its waters should have been the signal for a series of religious and
festal ceremonies, and led the earlier inhabitants of Egypt to worship
the river as a god. Some of these festivals still continue, and it is
only a very few years since the annual sacrifice of a young girl to
the Nile in flood was prohibited by the Khedive.

Though regular in its period of inundation, which begins in June, its
height varies from year to year; 40 to 45 feet constitutes a good
Nile--anything less than this implies a shortage of water and more or
less scanty crops; while should the Nile rise _higher_ than 45 feet
the result is often disastrous, embankments being swept away, gardens
devastated, while numbers of houses and little hamlets built on the
river-banks are undermined and destroyed.

The whole river as known to the ancients was navigable, and formed the
great trade route by which gold from Sheba, ivory, gum, ebony, and
many other commodities were brought into the country. The armies of
Pharaoh were carried by it on many warlike expeditions, and by its
means the Roman legions penetrated to the limits of the then known
world.

Hippopotamus and crocodile were numerous, and afforded sport for the
nobles, and though steamboats and increased traffic have driven these
away, on many a temple wall are pictured incidents of the chase, as
well as records of their wars.

It is natural, therefore, that on the banks of their mighty waterway
the Egyptians should have erected their greatest monuments, and the
progress of the Roman armies may still be traced by the ruins of their
fortified towns and castles, which, from many a rocky islet or crag,
command the river.

In another chapter I will tell you more about the monuments; at
present I wish to describe the Nile as it appears to-day.

Our first view of the river is obtained as we cross the Kasr-en-Nil
bridge at Cairo to join one of the many steamers by which visitors
make the Nile trip, and one's first impression is one of great beauty,
especially in the early morning. On the East Bank the old houses of
Būlak rise from the water's edge, and continue in a series of old
houses and palaces to the southern end of Rhoda Island, whose tall
palms and cypress-trees rise above the silvery mist which still hangs
upon the water. On the west the high mud-banks are crowned with palms
and lebbek-trees as far as one can see. Below the bridge, their white
sails gleaming in the early sun, hundreds of Nile boats are waiting in
readiness for the time appointed for its opening. On both banks steady
streams of people pass to and fro to fill their water-skins or jars,
while children paddle in the stream or make mud-pies upon the bank as
they will do all the world over.

The water is very muddy and very smooth, and reflects every object to
perfection; for these early mornings are almost invariably still, and
the water is unruffled by the north wind, which, with curious
regularity, springs up before midday.

I have already spoken of the high lateen sail of the Nile boats, a
form of sail which, though beautiful, has not been devised for
_pictorial_ purposes. In every country and in every sea peculiarities
of build and rig are displayed in native vessels. This is not the
result of whim or chance, but has been evolved as the result of long
experience of local requirements and conditions, and in every case I
think it may be taken that the native boat is the one most suited to
the conditions under which it is employed. So on the Nile these lofty
sails are designed to overtop the high banks and buildings, and so
catch the breeze which would otherwise be intercepted. The build of
the boats also is peculiar; they are very wide and flat bottomed, and
the rudders are unusually large, so as to enable them to turn quickly
in the narrow channels, which are often tortuous. The bow rises in a
splendid curve high out of the water, and throws the spray clear of
its low body, for the Egyptian loads his boat very heavily, and I have
often seen them so deep in the water that a little wall of mud has
been added to the gunwale so as to keep out the waves.

These native boats are of several kinds, from the small "felucca," or
open boat used for ferry or pleasure purposes, to the large "giassa,"
or cargo boat of the river. Some of these are very large, carrying two
or three enormous sails, while their cargoes of coal or goods of
various kinds are often as much as 150 tons; yet they sail fast, and
with a good breeze there are few steamers on the river which could
beat them.

The navigation of the Nile is often difficult, especially when the
river is falling, for each year it alters its course and new
sand-banks are formed, and it is not always easy to decide which is
the right channel to steer for. The watermen, however, are very
expert, and can usually determine their course by the nature of the
ripple on the water, which varies according to its depth. Frequently,
however, from accidents of light or other causes, it is not possible
to gauge the river in this way, so every boat is provided with long
sounding-poles called "midra," by means of which men stationed at
either side of the bow feel their way through the difficult channels,
calling out the depths of water as they go. In spite of these
precautions, however, steamers and sailing boats alike often stick
fast upon some bank which has, perhaps, been formed in a few hours by
a sudden shift of the wind or slight diversion of the current, caused
by the tumbling in of a portion of the bank a little higher up-stream.
Many of these boats travel long distances, bringing cargoes of coal,
cement, machinery, cotton goods, and hardware from the coast for
distribution in the provinces of Upper Egypt, and on their return
voyage are laden with sugar-cane or corn, and many other articles of
produce and native manufacture. As night falls, they usually moor
alongside the bank, when fires are lit, and the crews prepare their
simple evening meal. The supply of food, it may be noticed, is usually
kept in a bag, which is slung from the rigging, or a short post where
all can see it and no one be able to take advantage of another by
feeding surreptitiously.

It is often a pretty sight when several of these boats are moored
together, when, their day's work over, their crews will gather round
the fires, and to the accompaniment of tambourine or drum sing songs
or recite stories until it is time to sleep. No sleeping accommodation
is provided, and all the hardy boatman does is to wrap his cloak about
his head and lie among whatever portion of the cargo is least hard
and offers most protection from the wind.

The Nile banks themselves are interesting. In colour and texture
rather like chocolate, they are cut into terraces by the different
levels of the water, while the lapping of the waves is perpetually
undermining them, so that huge slabs of the rich alluvial mud are
continually falling away into the river. Each of these terraces, as it
emerges from the receding water, is planted with beans or melons by
the thrifty farmer, while the sand-banks forming in the river will
presently also be under cultivation, the natives claiming them while
still covered with water, their claims being staked by Indian-corn
stalks or palm-branches.

Like the canal banks in the Delta, the Nile banks form the great
highway for Upper Egypt, and at all times of the day one may see the
people and their animals silhouetted against the sky as they pass to
and fro between their villages. In the neighbourhood of large towns,
or such villages as hold a weekly market, the banks are very animated,
and for many miles are thronged with people from the surrounding
district, some walking, others riding on camels, donkeys, or
buffaloes, pressing towards the market to enjoy the show, or sell the
many articles of produce with which they are laden.

At the water's edge herds of buffaloes wallow in the river, tended by
a little boy who stares stolidly at your steamer as it passes or, in
great excitement, chases your vessel and vainly cries for
"backshish."[5] At frequent intervals are the water-wheels and
"shadūfs," which raise the water to the level of the fields, and
these are such important adjuncts of the farm that I must describe
them. The "shadūf" is one of the oldest and one of the simplest
methods of raising water in existence. A long pole is balanced on a
short beam supported by two columns of mud, about 4 or 5 feet high,
erected at the end of the water channel to be supplied; 6 feet or more
below it is the pool or basin cut in the river-bank, and which is kept
supplied with water by a little channel from the river. One end of the
pole is weighted by a big lump of mud; from the other a leather bucket
is suspended by means of a rope of straw, or a second and lighter
pole. In order to raise the water, the shadūf worker, bending his
weight upon the rope, lowers the bucket into the basin below, which,
when filled, is easily raised by the balancing weight, and is emptied
into the channel above. As the river falls the basin can no longer be
fed by the river, so a second "shadūf" is erected in order to keep
the first supplied, and in low Nile it is quite a common sight to see
four of these "shadūfs," one above the other, employed in raising
the water from the river-level to the high bank above. This work is,
perhaps, the most arduous of any farm labour, and the workers are
almost entirely naked as they toil in the sun, while a screen of
cornstalks is often placed to protect them from the cold north wind.
The water-wheels, or "sakia," as they are called, are of two kinds,
and both ingenious. Each consists of a large wheel placed
horizontally, which is turned by one or more bullocks; the spokes of
this wheel project as cogs, so as to turn another wheel placed below
it at right angles. When used in the fields, the rim of this second
wheel is hollow and divided into segments, each with a mouth or
opening. As the wheel revolves its lower rim is submerged in the well,
filling its segments with water, which, as they reach the top, empty
their contents sideways into a trough, which carries the water to the
little "genena," or watercourse, which supplies the fields. Those used
on the river-bank, however, are too far from the water for such a
wheel to be of use, so in place of the hollow rim the second wheel
also has cogs, on which revolves an endless chain of rope to which
earthen pots are attached, and whose length may be altered to suit the
varying levels of the river. Some of these "sakias" are very pretty,
as they are nearly always shaded by trees of some kind as a protection
to the oxen who work them.

[Footnote 5: "A gift."]

[Illustration: A WATERING-PLACE.]

One of the prettiest incidents of all, however, is the village
watering-place, where morning and evening the women and children of
the town congregate to fill their water-pots, wash their clothing or
utensils, and enjoy a chat. It is pretty to watch them as they come
and go; often desperately poor, they wear their ragged, dust-soiled
clothing with a queenly grace, for their lifelong habit of carrying
burdens upon their heads, and their freedom from confining garments,
have given them a carriage which women in this country might well
envy. Though generally dark-skinned and toil-worn, many of the younger
women are beautiful, while all have shapely and delicately-formed
limbs, and eyes and teeth of great beauty. At the water's edge the
children are engaged in scrubbing cooking-pots and other utensils,
while their elders are employed in washing their clothing or domestic
linen, when, after perhaps enjoying a bathe themselves, their
water-pots are filled, and, struggling up the steep bank, they
disappear towards the village. These water-pots, by the way, are
two-handled, and pretty in shape, and are always slightly conical at
the base, so that they are able to stand on the shelving river-banks
without falling, and for the same reason are nearly always carried
slightly sideways on the head. It is pretty to see the wonderful sense
of balance these girls display in carrying their water-pots, which
they seldom touch with their hand, and it is surprising also what
great weights even young girls are able to support, for a "balass"
filled with water is often a load too heavy for her to raise to her
head without the assistance of another. Like all the poor, they are
always obliging to each other, and I recently witnessed a pathetic
sight at one of these village watering-places, when an old woman, too
infirm to carry her "balass" herself, was with difficulty struggling
down the bank and leading a blind man, who bore her burden for her.




CHAPTER VI

THE NILE--II


The Nile varies considerably in width, from a quarter of a mile, as in
the deep channel before Cairo, to two miles or more higher up, where
the wide space between its high banks, filled to the brim during high
Nile, has almost the appearance of a sea; but as the river falls it is
studded with islands, many of them of considerable extent, and often
under permanent cultivation. The navigable channel is close under one
bank or other, though the shallow water which covers the shoals gives
the river the appearance of being considerably larger than it really
is. In character the scenery is generally placid, and the smooth
water, shimmering under the warm sun which edges the sand-banks with a
gleaming line of silver, is hardly broken by a ripple. I always think
the river prettiest when the Nile is low and the sand-banks appear. In
the shallows pelicans, ibis, heron, and stork are fishing together
without interfering with each other, while large flights of wild-duck
rise splashing from the stream. Eagles soar aloft, or, with the
vultures, alight upon a sand-bank to dispute the possession of some
carcass with the jackals and the foxes. Water wag-tails flit along the
shore, or in the most friendly manner board your steamer to feed on
the crumbs from your tea-table, while large numbers of gay-plumaged
king-fishers dart in and out from their nests tunnelled far into the
precipitous face of the river-bank.

On either side are the eternal hills, beautiful under any effect of
light.

It is astonishing how infinitely varied the Nile scenery is according
to the time of day. In the early morning, mists often hang upon the
water, and the air is bitterly cold, for these sandy wastes which abut
upon the Nile retain little heat by night. Above the cool green of the
banks the high hills rise mysteriously purple against the sunrise, or
catch the first gleam of gold on their rugged bluffs.

As the sun mounts higher a delicate pink tinge suffuses all, and the
hanging mists are dispersed by the growing heat to form little flecks
of white which float in the deep blue of the sky above you. Meanwhile
the life of the river and the fields has recommenced, and the banks
again become animated, and innumerable Nile boats dot the surface of
the stream.

At midday the landscape is enveloped in a white heat, while the bluffs
and buttresses of the rocks cast deep purple shadows on the sweeping
sand-drifts which lie against their base. It is a drowsy effect of
silver and grey, when Nature seems asleep and man and beast alike are
inclined to slumber.

Towards evening, glorified by the warm lights, how rich in colour the
scenery becomes! The western banks, crowned by dense masses of
foliage, whose green appears almost black against the sunset, are
reflected in the water below, its dark surface broken by an
occasional ripple and little masses of foam which have drifted down
from the cataract hundreds of miles away. Beyond the belt of trees the
minarets of some distant village are clear cut against the sky, for
the air is so pure that distance seems to be annihilated. Looking
east, the bold cliffs face the full glory of the sunset, and display a
wonderful transformation of colour, as the white or biscuit-coloured
rocks reflect the slowly changing colour of the light. They gradually
become enveloped in a ruddy glow, in which the shadows of projections
appear an aerial blue, and seem to melt imperceptibly into the glowing
sky above them. Gradually a pearly shadow creeps along the base of the
cliffs or covers the whole range, and one would suppose that the glory
of the sunset was past. In about a quarter of an hour, however,
commences the most beautiful transformation of all, and one which I
think is peculiar to the Nile Valley, for a second glow, more
beautiful and more ethereal than the first, overspreads the hills,
which shine like things translucent against the purple earth-shadow
which slowly mounts in the eastern sky. The sails of the boats on the
river meanwhile have taken on a tint like old ivory, while perhaps a
full moon appears above the hill-tops, and in twisting bars of silver
is reflected in the gently moving water at your feet.

The Nile is not always in so gentle a mood as this, however, for on
most days a strong north wind disturbs the water, and changes the
placid river into one of sparkling animation. The strong wind,
meeting the current of the stream, breaks the water into waves which
are foam-flecked and dash against the muddy cliffs and sand-banks,
while the quickly sailing boats bend to the wind, and from their bluff
and brightly-painted bows toss the sprays high into the air, or turn
the water from their sides in a creamy cataract. The sky also is
flecked with rounded little wind-clouds, whose undersides are
alternately grey or orange as they pass over the cultivated land or
desert rock, whose colour they partially reflect. The colour of the
water also becomes very varied, for the turn of each wave reflects
something of the blue sky above, and the sun shines orange through the
muddy water as it curls, while further variety of tint is given by the
passing cloud-shadows and the intense blueness of the smoother patches
which lie upon the partially covered sand-spits. This always forms a
gay scene, for the river is crowded with vessels which sail quickly,
and take every advantage of the favourable wind. Sometimes the north
wind becomes dangerous in its energy, and wrecks are not infrequent,
while from the south-west, at certain periods of the year, comes the
hot "khamsīn" wind, which, lashing the water into fury, and filling
the air with dust, renders navigation almost impossible.

Some of the cargoes carried by these Nile boats are worth describing,
and large numbers are employed in carrying "tibbin" from the farms to
the larger towns. "Tibbin" is the chopped straw upon which horses and
cattle in the towns are mainly fed, and it is loaded on to the boats
in a huge pyramidical pile carried upon planks which considerably
overhang the boat's sides. The steersman is placed upon the top of
this stack, and is enabled to guide his vessel by a long pole lashed
to the tiller, and it is curious to notice that the "tibbin," though
finely chopped, does not appear to blow away.

In a somewhat similar manner the immense quantity of balass and other
water-pots, which are manufactured at Girgeh, Sohag, and other places
on the Upper Nile, are transported down-stream. In this case, however,
large beams of wood are laid across the boats, which are often loaded
in couples lashed together, and from which are slung nets upon which
the water-pots are piled to the height of 10 or 12 feet, and one may
often meet long processions of these boats slowly drifting down stream
to Assiut or Cairo.

Another frequent cargo is sugar-cane, perhaps the greatest industry of
the upper river, and at Manfalut, Rhoda, Magaga, and many other places
large sugar factories have sprung into existence of late years. The
trade is a very profitable one for Egypt, but, unfortunately, their
tall chimneys and ugly factories, which are always built close to the
Nile bank, are doing much to spoil the beauties of the river, and,
worst of all, noisy little steam tugs and huge iron barges are yearly
becoming more numerous.

Though, as we have seen, crocodiles have long ago left the Lower Nile,
the river abounds in fish, and from the terraces of its banks one may
constantly see fishermen throwing their hand-nets, while in the
shallows and backwaters of the river, drag-nets are frequently
employed. I recently watched the operation, which I will describe.
Beginning at the lower end of the reach, seven men were employed in
working the net, three at either end to haul it, while another, wading
in the middle, supported it at the centre. Meanwhile two of their
party had run far up the banks, one on either side, and then, entering
the water, slowly descended towards the nets, shouting and beating the
water with sticks, thus driving the fish towards the nets. Usually the
fish so caught are small, or of only moderate size, though I have
frequently seen exposed for sale in the markets fish weighing upwards
of 300 pounds and 6 feet or more in length.

The Nile Valley is comparatively wide for a considerable distance
above Cairo, and while the hills which fringe the Lybian desert are
generally in view in the distance, those on the eastern side gradually
close in upon the river as we ascend, and in many places, such as
Gibel Kasr-es-Saad, or "the castle of the hunter," Feshun, or Gibel
Abou Fedr, rise almost perpendicularly from the river to the height of
1,000 feet or more, and although considerable areas of cultivated land
are to be found at intervals on the eastern side, practically all the
agricultural land of Upper Egypt lies on the western bank of the
river.

The rock of which the hills are formed is limestone, and it is a very
dazzling sight as you pass some of these precipitous cliffs in the
brilliant sunshine, especially where the quarrymen are working and the
sunburnt outside has been removed, exposing the pure whiteness of the
stone.

Along the narrow bank of shingle at the foot of the cliffs flocks of
dark-coated sheep and goats wander in search of such scant herbage as
may be found along the water's edge, and many native boats lie along
the banks loading the stone extracted by the quarrymen, who look like
flies on the face of the rock high above you. Enormous quantities of
stone are required for the building of the various dams and locks on
the river, as well as for the making of embankments and "spurs." These
"spurs" are little embankments which project into the river at a
slight angle pointing down-stream, and are made in order to turn the
direction of the current towards the middle of the river, and so
protect the banks from the scour of the water; for each year a portion
of the banks is lost, and in many places large numbers of palm-trees
and dwellings are swept away, for the native seems incapable of
learning how unwise it is to build at the water's edge. Sometimes
whole fields are washed away by the flood, and the soil, carried
down-stream, forms a new island, or is perhaps deposited on the
opposite side of the river many miles below. When this occurs, the new
land so formed is held to be the property of the farmer or landowner
who has suffered loss.

These changes of the river-banks are often rapid. One year vessels may
discharge their passengers or cargoes upon the bank whereon some town
or village is built, and which the following year may be separated
from the river by fields many acres in extent; and each year in going
up the Nile one may notice striking changes in this way.

As the Nile winds in its course the rocky hills on either side
alternately approach close to the river, revealing a succession of
rock-hewn tombs or ancient monasteries, or recede far into the
distance, half hidden in the vegetation of the arable land; but,
speaking generally, the river flows principally on the eastern side of
the valley, while all the large towns, such as Wasta, Minyeh, Assiut,
or Girgeh are built upon the western bank, where the largest area of
fertility is situated.

As we ascend the river the vegetation slowly changes; cotton and
wheat, so freely grown in the Delta, give place to sugar-cane and
Indian corn, and the feathery foliage of the sunt and mimosa trees is
more in evidence than the more richly clad lebbek or sycamore.

In many places are fields of the large-leaved castor-oil plants, whose
crimson flower contrasts with the delicately tinted blossoms of the
poppies which, for the sake of their opium, are grown upon the
shelving banks. The dôm palm also is a new growth, and denotes our
approach to tropical regions, while the type and costume of the people
have undergone a change, for they are darker and broader in feature
than the people of Lower Egypt, and the prevailing colour of their
clothing is a dark brown, the natural colour of their sheep, from
whose wool their heavy homespun cloth is made.

The limestone hills which have been our companions since leaving Cairo
also disappear, and a little way above Luxor low hills of sandstone
closely confine the river in a very narrow channel. This is the Gibel
Silsileh, which from the earliest times has supplied the stone of
which the temples are built. These celebrated quarries produce the
finest stone in the country, and have always been worked in the most
scientific and methodical manner, deep cuttings following the veins
of good stone which only was extracted, while the river front has
remained practically untouched--a contrast to the modern method of
quarrying, where the most striking bluffs upon the Nile are being
recklessly blown away, causing an enormous waste of material as well
as seriously affecting the beauty of the scenery.




CHAPTER VII

THE NILE--III


After a river journey of 583 miles from Cairo, Assuan is
reached--limit of Egypt proper and the beginning of an entirely new
phase of Nile scenery. Cultivation in any large sense has been left
behind, and we are now in Nubia, a land of rock and sand, sparsely
inhabited, and, excepting in very small patches along the water's
edge, producing no crops.

[Illustration: FIRST CATARACT FROM ELEPHANTINE ISLAND.]

Built at the northern end of what is called the first cataract, Assuan
is perhaps the most interesting and prettily-situated town in Upper
Egypt. Facing the green island of Elephantine and the golden
sand-drifts which cover the low range of hills across the river,
Assuan stretches along the river-bank, its white buildings partly
screened by the avenue of palms and lebbek-trees which shade its
principal street, while to the north are dense groves of date-palms,
past which the Nile sweeps in a splendid curve and is lost to sight
among the hills. Behind, beyond its open-air markets and the
picturesque camp of the Besharīn, the desert stretches unbroken to
the shores of the Red Sea.

The bazaars of Assuan are extremely picturesque, and are covered
almost throughout their length; the lanes which constitute them are
narrow and winding, forming enticing vistas whose distances are
emphasized by the occasional glints of sunlight which break in upon
their generally subdued light. In the shops are exposed for sale all
those various goods and commodities which native life demands; but
visitors are mostly attracted by the stalls of the curio sellers, who
display a strange medley of coloured beads and baskets, rich
embroideries, stuffed animals, and large quantities of arms and
armour, so-called trophies of the wars in the Sūdan. Though most of
these relics are spurious, genuine helmets and coats of mail of old
Persian and Saracenic times may occasionally be found, while large
numbers of spears and swords are undoubtedly of Dervish manufacture.

For most Englishmen Assuan has also a tragic interest in its
association with the expedition for the relief of General Gordon, and
the subsequent Mahdist wars, when regiment after regiment of British
soldiers passed through her streets on their way towards those burning
deserts from which so many of them were destined never to return.
Those were exciting, if anxious, days for Assuan, and many visitors
will remember how, some years ago, the presence of Dervish horsemen in
its immediate vicinity rendered it unsafe for them to venture outside
the town. Those days are happily over, and there is now little use for
the Egyptian forts which to the south and east guarded the little
frontier town.

From a ruined Roman fort which crowns a low hill at the south end of
the town we have our first view of the cataract, and the sudden change
in the character of the scenery is remarkable.

In place of the broad fields and mountains to which we have been
accustomed, the river here flows in a basin formed by low, precipitous
hills, and is broken by innumerable rocky islets on different levels,
which form the series of rapids and little cascades which give the
cataract its name. These little islets are formed by a collection of
boulders of red granite filled in with silt, and have a very strange
effect, for the boulders are rounded by the action of the water,
which, combined with the effect of the hot sun, has caused the red
stone to become coated with a hard skin, black and smooth to touch,
just as though they had been blackleaded.

Many of the islets are simply rocks of curious shapes which jut out of
the water; others are large enough to be partially cultivated, and
their little patches of green are peculiarly vivid in contrast with
the rock and sand which form their setting.

The scenery is wildly fantastic, for while the rocks which form the
western bank are almost entirely covered by the golden sand-drifts
which pour over them, smooth as satin, to the water's edge, those on
the east are sun-baked and forbidding, a huge agglomeration of
boulders piled one upon the other and partially covered by shingle,
which crackle under foot like clinkers; between are the islands, many
crowned by a hut or pigeon-cote, and with their greenery often
perfectly reflected in the rapidly flowing water.

Though navigation here is difficult, and a strong breeze is necessary
to enable vessels to ascend the river, boat sailing is a popular
feature of European life in Assuan, a special kind of sailing-boat
being kept for visitors, who organize regattas and enjoy many a
pleasant picnic beneath the shade of the dôm palms or mimosa-trees
which grow among the rocks.

In the old days the great excursion from Assuan was by water to the
"Great Gate," as the principal rapid was called, often a difficult
matter to accomplish. To-day the great dam has replaced it as the
object of a sail.

This is the greatest engineering work of the kind ever constructed,
and spans the Nile Valley at the head of the cataract basin. It is a
mile and a quarter in length, and the river, which is raised in level
about 66 feet, pours through a great number of sluice-gates which are
opened or shut according to the season of the year and the necessities
of irrigation or navigation.

Behind, the steep valley is filled, and forms a huge lake extending
eighty miles to the south, and many pretty villages have been
submerged, while of the date-groves which surrounded them the crests
of the higher trees alone appear above water. The green island of
Philæ also is engulfed, and of the beautiful temple of Isis built upon
it only the upper portion is visible.

Below the dam activity of many kinds characterizes the Nile, as does
the sound of rushing water the Cataract basin. Above, silence reigns,
for the huge volume of stored water lies inert between its rugged
banks.

One's first thought is one of sadness, for everywhere the tree-tops,
often barely showing above water, seem to mourn the little villages
and graveyards which lie below, and as yet no fresh verdure has
appeared to give the banks the life and beauty they formerly had.

As at the cataract, here also the hills are simply jumbled heaps of
granite boulders, fantastically piled one upon the other, barren and
naked, and without any vegetable growth to soften their forbidding
wildness.

On many rocky islands are the ruined mud buildings of the Romans, and
more than one village, once populous, lies deserted and abandoned upon
some promontory which is now surrounded by the flood.

Though a general sense of mournfulness pervades it, the scenery has
much variety and beauty, nor have all the villages been destroyed;
many had already been built far above the present water-level, while
others have sprung up to take the place of those submerged. These
again present new features to the traveller, for, unlike many we have
seen below the cataract, these Nubian dwellings are well built, the
mud walls being neatly smoothed and often painted. The roofs are
peculiar, being in the form of well-constructed semicircular arches,
all of mud, and in many cases the tops of the outside walls are
adorned by a kind of balustrade of open brickwork.

Half hidden among the rocks the native house has often the appearance
of some temple pylon, and seems to fit the landscape in a peculiar
way, for no form of building harmonizes so well with the Egyptian
scenery as the temple. Whether or not the native unconsciously copies
the ancient structure I cannot say, but anyone visiting Egypt must
often be struck by the resemblance, particularly when, as is often the
case, the little house is surmounted by pigeon-cotes, which in form
are so like the temple towers.

Like their homes, the inhabitants of Nubia also differ from those of
Egypt proper, for they are Berbers and more of the Arab type,
handsome, and with regular features and ruddy in complexion, while
many of the small children, who, excepting for a few strings of beads,
run about naked, are extremely beautiful. There is one curious fact
about these villages which no one could fail to notice, for while
there are always plenty of women and children to be seen, there are no
_men_, and though practically there is no cultivation, food appears to
be abundant!

The reason is that these people are so nice in character and generally
so trustworthy, that the men are all employed in Cairo and elsewhere
as domestic servants, or "syces,"[6] and though they themselves may
not see their homes for years, their wages are good, and so they are
able to send food and clothing in plenty to their families.

[Footnote 6: Grooms.]

As we ascend the river and approach the limit of the stored water, the
banks again become fertile, for here the water is simply maintained at
flood-level, and has not had the same disastrous effect as lower down
the valley. Here the scenery is very striking; bold rocks jut out from
the beautiful golden sand-drifts which often pour into the river
itself, or in sharp contrast terminate in the brilliant line of green
which fringes the banks. All around, their ruggedness softened in the
warm light, are the curious, conical mountains of Nubia, and on the
eastern side large groves of palms, green fields, and water-wheels
make up as pretty a scene as any in Egypt; presently, no doubt,
cultivation will again appear on the barren margins of the lake above
the dam and restore to it the touch of beauty it formerly had.

It is intended still further to raise the dam, and the higher level of
water then maintained will not only entirely submerge Philæ, but
practically all the villages now existing on its banks, as well as
partially inundating many interesting temples of Roman origin. It
seems a pity that so beautiful a temple as Philæ should be lost, and
one feels sorry that the villages and palm-groves of Nubia should be
destroyed, but necessity knows no law, and each year water is required
in greater quantities, as the area of cultivation below extends, while
the villagers are amply compensated by the Government for their loss.

It is interesting to stand upon the dam and see the pent-up water pour
through the sluices to form huge domes of hissing water which toss
their sprays high into the air, and whose roar may be heard many miles
away, while on the rocky islands down-stream numbers of natives are
watching the rushing stream, ready to dive in and secure the numbers
of fish of various sizes which are drawn through the sluice-gates and
are stunned or killed under the great pressure of water.

There are many other interests in Assuan, which is a delightful place
to visit. The desert rides, the ancient quarries where the temple
obelisks were hewn, the camp of the beautiful Besharīn, and the
weirdly pictorial Cufic cemetery which winds so far along the barren
valley in which the river once flowed--each have their attraction,
which varies with the changing light, while many a happy hour may be
spent in watching the many coloured lizards which play among the
rocks, the curious mantis and twig-insects, and other strange
specimens of insect life which abound here; while, should you weary of
sight-seeing and the glare of light, quietude and repose may be found
among the fruit-laden fig-trees of Kitchener's Island, or in the shady
gardens of Elephantine.

Such in brief is the Nile from Cairo to the first cataract, though a
great deal more might be written on this subject. The various towns
and villages passed are often very pretty, and some are of great age,
and surrounded by very interesting remains. Then there is the
enjoyment of the many excursions on donkey-back to visit some tomb or
temple, the amusement of bargaining for trophies or curios at the
various landing-places, and a host of other interests which go to make
the trip up the Nile one of the most fascinating possible, and which
prevent any weariness of mind in the passenger. But to write fully
about all these things is beyond the scope of this small book, though
some day, perhaps, many of my readers may have the opportunity of
seeing it all for themselves, and so fill in the spaces my short
narrative must necessarily leave.




CHAPTER VIII

THE MONUMENTS


If asked to name any one thing which more than any other typified
Egypt, the average boy or girl would at once reply, "The pyramids,"
and rightly, for though pyramids have been built in other countries,
this particular form of structure has always been regarded as
peculiarly Egyptian, and was selected by the designers of its first
postage stamp as the emblem of the country.

[Illustration: THE PYRAMIDS OF GHIZEH FROM THE DESERT.]

In speaking of the pyramids it is always the pyramids of Ghizeh which
are meant, for though there are a great many other pyramids in Egypt
these are the largest, and being built upon the desert plateau, form
such a commanding group that they dominate the landscape for miles
around. All visitors to Egypt, moreover, are not able to go up the
Nile or become acquainted with the temples, but everyone sees the
pyramids and sphinx, which are close to Cairo, and easily reached by
electric car, so to the great majority of people who visit the country
they represent not only the antiquity of Egypt, but of the world.

The great pyramid of Cheops, though commenced in 3733 B.C.,
is not the oldest monument in Egypt; the step pyramid of Sakkara is of
earlier date, while the origin of the sphinx is lost in obscurity. The
pyramid, however, is of immense size, and leaves an abiding
impression upon the minds of everyone who has seen it, or climbed its
rugged sides. Figures convey little, I am afraid, but when I tell you
that each of its sides was originally 755 feet in length and its
height 481 feet, or 60 feet higher than the cross of St. Paul's, and
that gangs of men, 100,000 in each, were engaged for twenty years in
its construction, some idea of its immensity may be formed. At one
time the pyramids were covered with polished stone, but this has all
been removed and has been used in building the mosques of Cairo, and
to-day its exterior is a series of steps, each 4 to 6 feet in height,
formed by the enormous blocks of limestone of which it is built.

Designed as a tomb, it has various interior chambers and passages, but
it was long ago ransacked by the Persians, and later by the Romans and
Arabs, so that of whatever treasure it may once have contained,
nothing now remains but the huge stone sarcophagus or coffin of the
King.

The second pyramid, built by Chephron 3666 B.C., is little
less in size, and still has a little of the outer covering at its
apex. All around these two great pyramids are grouped a number of
others, while the rock is honeycombed with tombs, and practically from
here to the first cataract the belt of rocky hills which rise so
abruptly from the Nile Valley is one continuous cemetery, only a small
portion of which has so far been explored.

Close by is the sphinx, the oldest of known monuments. Hewn out of the
solid rock, its enormous head and shoulders rise above the sand which
periodically buries it, and, battered though it has been by Mohammed
Ali's artillery, the expression of its face, as it gazes across the
fertile plain towards the sunrise, is one of calm inscrutability,
difficult to describe, but which fascinates the beholder.

From the plateau on which these pyramids are built may be seen
successively the pyramids of Abousīr, Sakkara, and Darshūr, and
far in the distance the curious and lonely pyramid of Medūn. These
are all built on the edge of the desert, which impinges on the
cultivated land so abruptly that it is almost possible to stand with
one foot in the desert and the other in the fields.

In addition to the pyramids, Sakkara has many tombs of the greatest
interest, two of which I will describe.

One is called the "Serapeum," or tomb of the bulls. Here, each in its
huge granite coffin, the mummies of the sacred bulls, for so long
worshipped at Memphis, have been buried.

The tomb consists of a long gallery excavated in the rock below
ground, on either side of which are recesses just large enough to
contain the coffins, each of which is composed of a single block of
stone 13 feet by 11 by 8, and which, with their contents, must have
been of enormous weight, and yet they have been lowered into position
in the vaults without damage. The tomb, however, was rifled long ago,
and all the sarcophagi are now empty. There is one very curious fact
about this tomb which I must mention, for though below ground it is
so intensely hot that the heat and glare of the desert as you emerge
appears relatively cool.

While the Serapeum is a triumph of engineering, the neighbouring tomb
of Thi is of rare beauty, for though its design is simple, the walls,
which are of fine limestone, are covered by panels enclosing carvings
in low relief, representing every kind of agricultural pursuits, as
well as fishing and hunting scenes. The carving is exquisitely
wrought, while the various animals depicted--wild fowl, buffaloes,
antelopes, or geese--are perfect in drawing and true in action.

Close to Sakkara are the dense palm-groves of Bedrashen, which
surround and cover the site of ancient Memphis. At one time the most
important of Egypt's capitals, Memphis has almost completely
disappeared into the soft and yielding earth, and little trace of the
former city now remains beyond a few stones and the colossal statue of
Rameses II., one of the oppressors of Israel, which now lies prostrate
and broken on the ground.

Though there have been many ancient cities in the Delta, little of
them now remains to be seen, for the land is constantly under
irrigation, and in course of time most of their heavy stone buildings
have sunk into the soft ground and become completely covered by
deposits of mud. So, as at Memphis, all that now remains of ancient
Heliopolis, or On, is one granite obelisk, standing alone in the
fields; while at other places, such as Tamai or Bête-el-Haga near
Mansūrah, practically nothing now remains above ground.

In Upper Egypt, where arable land was scarce and the desert close at
hand, the temples have generally been built on firmer foundations, and
many are still in a very perfect state of preservation, though the
majority were ruined by the great earthquake of 27 B.C.

The first temple visited on the Nile trip is Dendereh, in itself
perhaps not of the greatest historical value, as it is only about
2,000 years of age, which for Egypt is quite modern; but it has two
points of interest for all. First, its association with Cleopatra,
who, with her son, is depicted on the sculptured walls; and, secondly,
because it is in such a fine state of preservation that the visitor
receives a very real idea of what an Egyptian temple was like.

First let me describe the general plan of a temple; it is usually
approached by a series of gateways called pylons or pro-pylons, two
lofty towers with overhanging cornices, between which is the gate
itself, and by whose terrace they are connected. Between these
different pylons is generally a pro-naos, or avenue of sphinxes,
which, on either side, face the causeway which leads to the final gate
which gives entrance to the temple proper. In front of the pylons were
flag-staffs, and the lofty obelisks (one of which now adorns the
Thames Embankment) inscribed with deeply-cut hieroglyphic writing
glorifying the King, whose colossal statues were often placed between
them.

Each of the gateways, and the walls of the temple itself, are covered
with inscriptions, which give it a very rich effect, their strong
shadows and reflected lights breaking up the plain surface of the
walls in a most decorative way, and giving colour to their otherwise
plain exterior. Another point worth notice is that this succession of
gateways becomes gradually larger and more ornate, so that those
entering are impressed with a growing sense of wonder and admiration,
which is not lessened on their return when the diminishing size of the
towers serves to accentuate the idea of distance and immensity.

One of the striking features in the structure of these buildings is
that while the inside walls of tower or temple are perpendicular, the
outside walls are sloping. This was intended to give stability to the
structure, which in modern buildings is imparted by their buttresses;
but in the case of the temples it has a further value in that it adds
greatly to the feeling of massive dignity which was the main principle
of their design.

Entering the temple we find an open courtyard surrounded by a covered
colonnade, the pillars often being made in the form of statues of its
founder. This court, which is usually large, and open to the sky, was
designed to accommodate the large concourse of people which would so
often assemble to witness some gorgeous temple service, and beyond,
through the gloomy but impressive hypostyle[7] hall, lay the shrine of
the god or goddess to whom the temple was dedicated and the dark
corridors and chambers in which the priests conducted their mystic
rites.

[Footnote 7: One with a roof supported by columns.]

In a peculiar way the temple of Dendereh impresses with a sense of
mystic dignity, for though the pylons and obelisks have gone, and its
outside precincts are smothered in a mass of Roman débris, the
hypostyle hall which we enter is perhaps more impressive than any
other interior in Egypt. The massive stone roof, decorated with
illumination and its celebrated zodiac, is supported by eighteen huge
columns, each capped by the head of the goddess Hathor, to whom the
temple is dedicated, while columns and walls alike are covered with
decorative inscriptions.

Through the mysterious gloom we pass through lofty doorways, which
lead to the shrine or the many priests' chambers, which, entirely
dark, open from the corridors.

Though it has been partially buried for centuries, and the smoke of
gipsy fires has blackened much of its illuminated vault, enough of the
original colour by which columns and architraves were originally
enriched still remains to show us how gorgeous a building it once had
been. There are a great many temples in Egypt of greater importance
than Dendereh, but though Edfu, for example, is quite as perfect and
much larger, it has not quite the same fascination. Others are more
beautiful perhaps, and few Greek temples display more grace of
ornament than Kom Ombo or submerged Philæ, while the simple beauty of
Luxor or the immensity of the ruins of Karnac impress one in a manner
quite different from the religious feeling inspired by gloomy
Dendereh.

I have previously spoken of the hum of bees in the fields, but here we
find their nests; for plastered over the cornice, and filling a large
portion of the deeply-cut inscriptions, are the curious mud homes of
the wild bees, who work on industriously, regardless of the attacks
of the hundreds of bee-eaters[8] which feed upon them. Bees are not
the only occupants of the temple, however, for swallows, pigeons, and
owls nest in their quiet interiors, and the dark passages and crypts
are alive with bats.

[Footnote 8: A small bird about the size of a sparrow.]

There are many other temples in Egypt of which I would like to tell
you had I room to do so, but you may presently read more about them in
books specially devoted to this subject. At present I want to say a
few words about _hieroglyphs_, which I have frequently mentioned.

Hieroglyphic writing is really _picture_ writing, and is the oldest
means man has employed to enable him to communicate with his fellows.
We find it in the writing of the Chinese and Japanese, among the
cave-dwellers of Mexico, and the Indian tribes of North America; but
the hieroglyphs of ancient Egypt differed from the others in this
respect, that they had _two_ values, one the _sound_ value of letters
or syllables of which a word was composed, the other the _picture_
value which determined it; thus we find the word "cat" or "dog"
spelled by two or three signs which give the letters, followed by a
picture of the animal itself, so that there might be no doubt as to
its meaning. This sounds quite simple, but the writing of the ancient
Egyptians had developed into a grammatical system so difficult that it
was only the discovery of the Rosetta stone, which was written in both
hieroglyph and Greek, that gave the scholars of the world their first
clue as to its meaning, and many years elapsed before the most
learned of them were finally able to determine the alphabet and
grammar of the early Egyptians.

I have said nothing about the religion of the Egyptians, because there
were so many different deities worshipped in different places and at
different periods that the subject is a very confusing one, and is
indeed the most difficult problem in Egyptology.

Rā was the great god of the Egyptians, and regarded by them as the
great Creator, is pictured as the sun, the life-giver; the other gods
and goddesses were generally embodiments of his various attributes, or
the eternal laws of nature; while some, like Osiris, were simply
deified human beings. The different seats of the dynasties also had
their various "triads," or trinities, of gods which they worshipped,
while bulls and hawks, crocodiles and cats, have each in turn been
venerated as emblems of some godlike or natural function. Thus the
"scarab," or beetle, is the emblem of eternal life, for the Egyptians
believed in a future state where the souls of men existed in a state
of happiness or woe, according as their lives had been good or evil.
But, like the hieroglyphs, this also is a study for scholars, and the
ordinary visitor is content to admire the decorative effect these
inscriptions give to walls and columns otherwise bare of ornament.

I must not close this slight sketch of its monuments without referring
to the colossal statues so common in Egypt.

Babylonia has its winged bulls and kings of heroic size, Burma its
built effigies of Buddha, but no country but Egypt has ever produced
such mighty images as the monolith statues of her kings which adorn
her many temples, and have their greatest expression in the rock-hewn
temple of Abou Simbel and the imposing colossi of Thebes. In the case
of Abou Simbel, the huge figures of Rameses II. which form the front
of his temple are hewn out of the solid rock, and are 66 feet in
height, forming one of the most impressive sights in Egypt. Though 6
feet less in height, the colossi of Thebes are even more striking,
each figure being carved out of a single block of stone weighing many
hundreds of tons, and which were transported from a great distance to
be placed upon their pedestals in the plain of Thebes.

[Illustration: THE COLOSSI OF THEBES--MOONRISE.]

Surely in the old days of Egypt great ideas possessed the minds of
men, and apart from the vastness of their other monuments, had ever
kings before or since such impressive resting-places as the royal
tombs cut deep into the bowels of the Theban hills, or the stupendous
pyramids of Ghizeh!




CHAPTER IX

THE PEOPLE


Beyond everything else Egypt is an agricultural country, and the
"fellahīn," or "soil-cutters," as the word means, its dominant
type, and in order to form any idea of their character or mode of
life, we must leave the towns behind and wander through the farm-lands
of the Delta.

Trains are few, and hotels do not exist, and anyone wishing to see the
people as they are must travel on horseback, and be content with such
accommodation as the villages afford. The roads are the canal-banks,
or little paths which wind among the fields; but, as we have already
seen, the country has many beauties, and the people are so genuine in
their simple hospitality that the traveller has many compensations for
the incidental hardships he may undergo.

What will perhaps first strike the traveller is the industry of the
people. The luxuriant crops give evidence of their labour, and the
fields are everywhere alive. From dawn to dark everyone is busily
employed, from the youngest child who watches the tethered cattle or
brings water from the well, to the old man so soon to find his last
resting-place in the picturesque "gabana"[9] without the village.
Seed-time and harvest go side by side in Egypt, and one may often
witness every operation of the farm, from ploughing to threshing,
going on simultaneously. The people seem contented as they work, for
whereas formerly the fellahīn were cruelly oppressed by their
rulers, to-day, under British guidance, they have become independent
and prosperous, and secure in the enjoyment of the fruits of their
labour.

[Footnote 9: Cemetery.]

Another impression which the visitor will receive is the curiously
Biblical character of their life, which constantly suggests the Old
Testament stories; the shepherds watching their flocks, ring-streaked
and speckled; the cattle ploughing in the fields; the women grinding
at the handmill, or grouped about the village well, all recall
incidents in the lives of Isaac and Rebekah, and episodes of
patriarchal times. Their salutations and modes of speech are also
Biblical, and lend a touch of poetry to their lives. "Turn in, my
lord, turn in to me," was Jael's greeting to flying Sisera, and
straight-way she prepared for him "butter in a lordly dish." So to-day
hospitality is one of their cardinal virtues, and I have myself been
chased by a horseman who rebuked me for having passed his home without
refreshment.

Steam-pumps, cotton-mills, and railways may have slightly altered the
aspect of the country, but to all intents and purposes, in habit of
thought and speech, in costume and customs, the people remain to-day
much as they were in those remote times pictured in the Book of
Genesis.

Fresh fruit or coffee is frequently proffered to the traveller on
his way, while his welcome at a village or the house of some landed
proprietor is always sure. On approaching a village, which is often
surrounded by dense groves of date-palms, the traveller will be met by
the head men, who, with many salaams, conduct him to the village
"mandareh," or rest-house, and it is only as such a guest, resident in
a village, that one can form any idea of the home-life of the people.

[Illustration: A NILE VILLAGE.]

From the outside the village often has the appearance of some rude
fortification, the houses practically joining each other and their
mud-walls having few openings. Within, narrow and tortuous lanes form
the only thoroughfares, which terminate in massive wooden doors, which
are closed at night and guarded by the village watchman. The huts--for
they are nothing else--which compose the village are seldom of more
than one storey, while in many cases their small doorway forms their
only means of ventilation. Their roofs are covered with a pile of
cotton-stalks and other litter, through which the pungent smoke of
their dung fires slowly percolates, while fowls and goats, and the
inevitable pariah dog roam about them at will.

Windows, when they do occur, are merely slits in the mud wall, without
glass or shutter, but often ornamented by a lattice of split
palm-leaves. Light and ventilation practically do not exist, while a
few mats, water-pots, and cooking utensils comprise the only
furniture; yet the people are well-conditioned and content, for their
life is in the fields, and their poor dwellings are little used except
at meal-times or at night.

The guest-house is little better than the huts, except that one side
is entirely open to the air; here at least the visitor may _breathe_,
even though his slumbers may be disturbed by the sheep and cattle
which wander in the lanes. At night a fire of corn-cobs is lit, and
while its smoke serves to drive away the swarms of mosquitoes and
flies with which the village is usually infested, its warmth is
grateful, for the nights are cold, and by its light, aided by a few
dim lanterns, the simple evening meal is shared with the head men, who
count it an honour to entertain a guest.

I have described one of the poorest of the "fellah" villages, but the
traveller is often more luxuriously housed. Many of the native
landowners occupy roomy and well-appointed dwellings, often surrounded
by pretty and well-stocked gardens, where one may rest beneath the
vines and fig-trees, and enjoy the pomegranates, apricots, and other
fruits which it supplies. These houses are generally clean and
comfortably furnished after the Turkish manner. The host,
prosperous-looking and well clothed, meets his guest at the doorstep
or assists him to dismount, when, with many compliments and
expressions of delight at his visit, he is conducted to the
guest-chamber. Coffee and sweet meats are then presented, a foretaste
of the generous meal to follow, for in the homes of the well-to-do a
feast is usually provided for an honoured guest.

The food is served on the low "sahniyeh," or tray, which forms the
table, on which several flat loaves surrounded by little dishes of
salad and other condiments, mark the places of the diners; but before
eating, each person present ceremoniously washes his hands and mouth,
a servant bringing in the copper "tisht wa abrīk," or jug and
basin, kept for that purpose.

The meal always begins with soup, which, greasy to begin with, is
rendered more so by the addition of a bowl of melted butter. This is
eaten with a spoon, the only utensil provided, each person dipping
into the bowl, which is placed in the centre of the table. The rest of
the meal, which consists of fish, pigeons, and various kinds of stews
and salads, is eaten with the hands, the diners often presenting each
other with choice morsels from their portion; a baked turkey stuffed
with nuts, or on important occasions a whole sheep, forms the
principal dish, which is cleverly divided by the host or principal
guest without the aid of knife or fork. Water in porous jars, often
flavoured with rose-leaves or verbena, is presented by servants as the
meal proceeds. The final dish always consists of boiled rice and milk
sweetened with honey, a delicious dish, which is eaten with the same
spoon by which the soup was partaken of.

Such fare as I have described is only for the wealthy. In general the
"fellahīn" live on rice and wheaten bread, sugar-cane, and
vegetables, with the occasional addition of a little meat, or such
fish as may be caught in the canals. Their beverage is water, coffee
being a luxury only occasionally indulged in, and their use of tobacco
is infrequent.

Theirs is a simple life whose daily round of labour is only broken by
the occasional marriage feast, or village fair, or, in the more
populous centres, by the periodic "Mūled," or religious festival.

In Cairo and other large cities, these "Mūleds" are very elaborate,
and often last for days together. Then business is suspended, and, as
at our Christmas-time, everyone gives himself up to enjoyment and the
effort to make others happy. Gay booths are erected in the open
spaces, in which is singing and the performance of strange Eastern
dances. Mummers and conjurers perform in the streets, and
merry-go-rounds and swing-boats amuse the youngsters, whose pleasure
is further enhanced by the many stalls and barrows displaying toy
balloons, dolls, and sweetmeats.

All wear their gayest clothing, and at night illuminations delight the
hearts of these simple people.

The principal feasts are the "Mūled-en-Nebbi," or birth of
Mohammed, and "El Hussanên," in memory of the martyred grandson of the
Prophet, and although they are Mohammedans the "Eed-el-Imam," or birth
of Christ, takes a high place among their religious celebrations.

But they have their fasts also, and Ramadan, which lasts for four
weeks, is far more strictly observed than Lent among ourselves, for
throughout that period, from sunrise to sunset, the Moslem abstains
from food or drink, except in the case of the aged or infirm, or of
anyone engaged upon work so arduous as to render food necessary, for
the Mohammedan does not allow his religion to interfere with his other
duties in life.

On the last day of Ramadan occurs a pretty observance similar to that
of All Souls' day in France; then everyone visits the tombs of their
relatives, laying garlands upon the graves and often passing the
night in the cemeteries in little booths made for the purpose.

You will have noticed how large a place _religion_ takes in the life
of the people, and in their idle hours no subject of conversation is
more common. To the average Mohammedan his religion is a very real
matter in which he fervently believes, and Allah is to him a very
personal God, whom he may at all times approach in praise or prayer in
the certain belief of His fatherly care. Nothing impresses a traveller
more than this tremendous belief of the Mohammedans in their Deity and
their religion; and though many people, probably from lack of
knowledge, hold the view that the Moslem faith is a debased one, it is
in reality a fine religion, teaching many wise and beautiful
doctrines, and ennobling the lives of all who live up to the best that
is in it.

Unfortunately the teaching of Mohammedanism is so largely fatalistic
that it tends to deprive the individual of personal initiative. "The
Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away, blessed be the name of the
Lord," is a general attitude of mind, and this, combined with their
long centuries of servitude, has had so much effect upon the national
character of the Egyptian that they almost entirely lack those
qualities of alertness, confidence, and sense of personal
responsibility without which no race can become great or even, indeed,
be self-respecting.

The higher education now general in Egypt has already had its effect
upon the present generation, among which a feeling of ambition and
independence is growing, while the Egyptian army has shown what
wonders may be wrought, even with the poorest material, by sustained
and honest effort in the right direction; and if the just and
sympathetic guidance which it has enjoyed for now a quarter of a
century is not too soon withdrawn, Egypt may once again become a
nation.

As it is, to-day the great mass of the people remain much as they have
been for ages; a simple, kindly people, ignorant and often fanatical,
but broadly good-humoured and keenly alive to a joke; fond of their
children, and showing great consideration for age, they have many
traits which endear them to those who have lived among them, while
their faults are largely on the surface, and due in some measure to
the centuries of ignorance and slavery which has been their lot.

The greatest blot upon the Egyptian character is the position accorded
to their women, who, as in all Mohammedan countries, are considered to
be soulless. From infancy employed in the most menial occupations,
they are not even permitted to enter the mosques at prayer-time, and
until recently the scanty education which the boys enjoyed was denied
to their sisters. It is no wonder, therefore, that these often
beautiful girls grow up much like graceful animals, ignorant of the
higher duties of life, and exercising none of that refining and
ennobling influence which have made the Western races what they are.




CHAPTER X

THE DESERT


When so much of geographical Egypt consists of desert, it would be
interesting if I were to tell you something about it before closing
this little book. Probably the first question my readers would ask
would be, "What use is it?" Why does Nature create such vast wastes of
land and rock which can be of little or no use to anybody?

We cannot always follow the intentions of Nature, or see what may
ultimately result, but so far as the desert is concerned we know of at
least _one_ useful purpose it serves, and that is the making of
_climate_.

Edinburgh and Moscow are in precisely the same latitudes, yet the one
is equable in temperature while the other endures the rigours of an
arctic winter. The South of Iceland also suffers less from cold than
do the great central plains of Europe. And why? Simply because their
different climates are the result of special conditions or influences
of Nature, and what the Gulf Stream does for the British Isles the
deserts of Africa effect not only for Egypt, but for the whole of
Southern Europe, whose genial climate is mainly caused by the warm air
generated on these sun-baked barren lands.

Now let us see what the desert is like in appearance. It is a very
common impression that the desert is simply a flat expanse of sand,
colourless and unbroken; in reality it is quite different, being full
of variations, which give it much the same diversity of interest as
the ocean.

The colour of the sand varies infinitely, according to its situation.
Thus the desert which surrounds Assuan, which is composed of decimated
granite and Nile silt, is generally grey; in Nubia the sand is formed
of powdered sandstone of a curiously golden tint, while the desert of
Suez, which abuts on Cairo and the Delta provinces, is generally white
in tone, due to the admixture of limestone dust of which it is largely
composed. The great Sahara also is no monotonous stretch of sand, but
is to a great extent covered by wild herbs of many kinds, which often
entirely screen the sand from view, and give it the appearance of a
prairie.

Nor is the desert always flat, for its huge undulations suggest ocean
billows petrified into stillness, while rocky hills and
earthquake-riven valleys give it a fantastic variety which is wildly
picturesque.

Though generally barren, the desert supports growths of many kinds;
wild hyssop, thorns, the succulent ice-plant, and a great variety of
other shrubs. Flowers also abound, and though they are usually small,
I have counted as many as twenty varieties in an area of as many feet,
and in some of the deep "wadis," as the mountain valleys are called,
wild plants grow in such profusion as to give them the appearance of
rock gardens.

In aspect the desert varies very much, according to the time of day or
changing effect of light.

At dawn a curious mauve tint suffuses it, and the sun rises sharp and
clear above the horizon, which also stands out crisply against the
sky, so pure is the air. Presently, as the sun slowly rises higher in
the sky, every shrub or stone or little inequality of surface is
tipped with gold and throws long blue shadows across the sand. At
midday a fierce glare envelops it, obliterating detail and colour,
while by moonlight it is a fairyland of silver, solemn, still, and
mysterious. Each phase has its special beauty, which interests the
traveller and robs his journey of monotony.

Scattered over the surface of the sand are innumerable pebbles of all
sizes and colours--onyx, cornelian, agate, and many more, as well as
sea fossils and other petrifactions which boys would love to collect.
And it is also curious to notice that the rocks which crop up in all
directions become _sunburnt_, and limestone, naturally of a dazzling
white, often assumes a variety of tints under the influence of the
powerful sun, as may be seen in the foreground of my picture of the
pyramids.

Animal life also exists in profusion; every tuft of scrub supports a
variety of insects upon which the hunting spider and desert lizard
feed; the tracks of giant beetles or timid jerboa scour the sand in
all directions, and many wild-birds make these wastes their home.
Prowling wolves and foxes hunt the tiny gazelle, while the rocky
hills, in which the wild goats make their home, also give shelter to
the hyenas and jackals, which haunt the caravan routes to feast upon
the dying animals which fall abandoned to their fate.

The life of the desert is not confined to the beasts, however, for
many Bedawīn tribes roam about them in search of water or fodder
for their animals, and of all the Eastern races I have met none are
more interesting than these desert nomads.

[Illustration: DESERT ARABS.]

The wandering life of the Bedawīn makes it difficult for anyone to
become acquainted with them, while their reputation for lawlessness is
such that travellers on desert routes usually endeavour to avoid them.
In several parts of the desert near Egypt, however, important families
of them have settled so as to be near the farm-lands granted to them
by Ismail Pasha many years ago (nominally in return for military
services, but in reality to keep them quiet), and I have often visited
their camps at Beni Ayoub and Tel Bedawi, to find them courteous,
hospitable, and in the best sense of the word, gentlemen.

These camps are large, and the long lines of tents, pitched with
military precision, shelter probably more than 1,000 people, for
though the head sheykh may build a lodge of stone in which to
entertain his guests, the Arab is a gipsy who loves his tent.

The tents, which are often very large, are formed of heavy cloths of
goats'-hair woven in stripes of different colours, and supported by a
large number of poles; long tassels hang from the seams, and other
cloths are often attached to them so as to divide the tent into
different apartments. Clean sand forms the floor, on which at
nightfall a rug or carpet is spread to form a bed. Round the walls
are the gay saddle-bags and trappings of the camels and horses, as
well as many boxes ornamented with tinsel and painting, which contain
the wardrobes and other possessions of the inmates. At the tent-door,
stuck upright in the ground, is the long spear of its occupant, and
the large earthen pot which serves as fireplace, while in some shady
corner a row of zīrs contain their supply of drinking water.
Turkeys and fowl give a homely look to the premises, where perhaps a
gentle-eyed gazelle is playmate to the rough-haired dogs few
Bedawīn are without. Round about the tents children are playing,
while their mothers are working at the hand-loom, or preparing the
simple evening meal.

In character the Bedawīn are dignified and reserved, and have a
great contempt for the noisiness so characteristic of the Egyptians,
but, like them, are passionately fond of their wives and children, and
so highly prize the various articles of saddlery or apparel made by
their hands that no money would buy them.

The men are tall, with strong aquiline features and keen eyes, which
look very piercing beneath the "cufia,"[10] which is wrapped around
their heads; their clothing is loose and flowing, a black "arbiyeh"
being worn over the "khaftan," or inner robe, of white or coloured
stripes, and their boots are of soft leather. Though the traditional
spear is still retained, all are armed with some firearm--ancient
flint-locks of great length, or more commonly nowadays with a modern
rifle, and many of the sheykhs wear a long, curved sword of beautiful
workmanship, which is slung across their shoulders by a silken cord.
All have strong, deep voices, and impress you with the idea that these
are manly and courageous fellows, and upright according to their
lights.

[Footnote 10: A square shawl of white or coloured silk.]

The women also are clothed in loose draperies, the outer one of some
rough material, which conceals others of daintier fabric and colour.
Handsome in feature, with glossy blue-black hair, their dark gipsy
faces also wear that look of sturdy independence which so becomes the
men.

It may naturally be asked, "How do these people occupy their time?"
First of all, they have large flocks, which must be fed and watered,
and they are thus compelled to wander from well to well, or from one
oasis to another, and they are also great breeders of horses, which
must be carefully looked after, and from time to time taken to some
far away fair for sale. Food and water also have often to be brought
long distances to their camps by the camel-men, while the women are
occupied with their domestic duties and their weaving.

Naturally the Bedawīn are expert horsemen, and are very fond of
equestrian sports. Some of their fancy riding is very clever, and
great rivalry exists among them, particularly in their "jerīd," or
javelin, play, when frequently several hundreds of mounted men are
engaged in a mêlée, which, though only intended to be a friendly
contest, often results in serious injury or death to many.

The Arab is very fond of his horse, which he himself has bred and
trained from a colt, and his affection is amply returned by his
steed. They are beautiful animals, strong and fleet-footed, but often
savage with anyone but their master.

Sport enters largely into the life of the Bedawīn, and many tribes
train falcons, with which they hunt gazelles, and in the Lybian desert
the "cheetah," or hunting leopard, is tamed and used for the same
purpose, and in this way the monotony of many a long desert march is
relieved.

When on a journey smaller tents than those which I have described are
used, all the heavy baggage being loaded on to camels, upon which the
women and children also ride. Camels have often been called the "ships
of the desert," and they are certainly the most useful of all animals
for such travelling, for their broad pads prevent their feet from
sinking into the soft sand, and not only do they carry enormous loads,
but are able for days together to go without food or water. When
Abraham sent his servant to seek a wife for Isaac, it was on camels
that he travelled, and shaded, no doubt, by her canopy of shawls, it
was on camel-back that Rebekah returned with him to the tent of his
master. So to-day we may often meet a similar party on their journey,
the women seated beneath the "mahmal," as the canopy is called, while
the food and water for the journey is slung from the saddles of the
camels ridden by the armed men who form their escort.

Camels are of two kinds--the heavily-built beast, such as we see in
Egypt, and which is used for baggage purposes, and the "hagīn," or
dromedary, used solely for riding. Lest any of my readers should fall
into the common error of supposing that the dromedary has two humps,
let me say that the only difference between it and the ordinary camel
is that it is smaller and better bred, just as our racehorses differ
from draught animals, and must not be confounded with the Bactrian or
two-humped camel of Asia. These hagīn are very fleet, and often
cover great distances, and I have known one to travel as much as 100
miles between sunset and sunrise!

On a journey the pace of a caravan is that of its slowest beast, and
very arduous such journeys often are, for there is no shade, and the
dust raised by the caravan envelops the slowly moving travellers,
while the fierce sun is reflected from the rocks, which often become
too hot to touch. On the other hand, the nights are often bitterly
cold, for the sand is too loose to retain any of its heat, while the
salt with which the desert is strongly impregnated has a chilling
effect on the air. Most trying of all, however, are the hot desert
winds, which often last for days together, drying up the water in the
skins, while the distressed travellers are half suffocated by the dust
and flying sand which cut the skin like knives. Little wonder,
therefore, if these hardy desert tribes are taciturn and reserved, for
they see nature in its stern moods, and know little of that ease of
life which may be experienced among the green crops and pastures of
the Delta.

It must not be supposed that the Bedawīn are morose, for beneath
their outward severity lies a great power for sympathy and affection.
The love of the Arab for his horse is proverbial, and his kindness to
all dumb animals is remarkable.

Like the Egyptian, family affection holds him strongly, and he has a
keen appreciation of poetry and music. Hospitality is to him a law,
and the guest is always treated with honour; it is pleasant also to
see the respect with which the Bedawīn regard their women, and the
harmony which exists between the members or a tribe. Their government
is patriarchal, each tribe being ruled by its sheykh, the "father of
his children," who administers their code of honour or justice, and
whose decision is always implicitly obeyed. Here, again, we have
another Biblical parallel, for, like his brother Mohammedan in Egypt,
the life of the desert Arab, no less than the dwellers on the "black
soil," still preserves many of those poetical customs and
characteristics which render the history of Abraham so attractive, and
although these pages have only been able to give a partial picture of
Egypt and its people, perhaps enough has been said to induce my
readers to learn more about them, as well as to enable them a little
more fully to realize how very real, and how very human, are the
romantic stories of the Old Testament.


THE END

       *       *       *       *       *




BEAUTIFUL BOOKS FOR

YOUNG PEOPLE

MANY WITH FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR

OTHERS FULLY ILLUSTRATED IN BLACK AND WHITE


PRICE 1/6 EACH

       *       *       *       *       *

"Pictures of Many Lands" Series

AND OTHER SIMILAR BOOKS

Crown 4to., paper boards, cloth back, with picture in colour on the
cover, each containing 58 illustrations, of which 32 are in colour.


America in Pictures

Asia in Pictures

The Children's World

The World in Pictures

The British Isles in Pictures

The British Empire in Pictures

Europe in Pictures

How other People Live

Beasts and Birds

Gardens in their Seasons

Pictures of British History

More Pictures of British History

Pictures of Famous Travel

Pictures of British Imperial History

_NOTE_.--_These volumes are also to be had in cloth at_ 2s. _each_.

       *       *       *       *       *

Large crown 8vo., cloth, with frontispiece.


Eric: or, Little by Little

St. Winifred's; or, The World of School

Scott's Waverley Novels.

       *       *       *       *       *

PORTRAIT EDITION, 25 Volumes.


Julian Home: a Tale of College Life

Outlines of Scripture History

       *       *       *       *       *

VICTORIA EDITION, 25 Volumes.

Each with frontispiece in colour.

_See list at the end of this Catalogue_.

PRICE 1/6 NET EACH

       *       *       *       *       *

Red Cap Tales from Scott

Large crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 8 full-page illustrations in
colour.


Waverley

Guy Mannering

Rob Roy

The Pirate, and A Legend of Montrose

The Antiquary

Ivanhoe

Fortunes of Nigel

Quentin Durward

       *       *       *       *       *

How to Use the Microscope. A Guide for the Novice. Containing 20
full-page illustrations from photo-micrographs, etc.

       *       *       *       *       *

Life and Legends of other Lands


Norse and Lapp

Finn and Samovad

Containing 12 full-page illustrations in colour.

       *       *       *       *       *

Large crown 8vo., cloth, with picture in colour on the cover.

Peeps at Many Lands and Cities

Each containing 12 full-page illustrations in colour


*Alsace-Lorraine

Australia

Belgium

Berlin

British North Borneo

Burma

Canada

Ceylon

*China

Corsica

Cuba

Delhi and the Durbar

Denmark

Edinburgh

*Egypt

Egypt, Ancient

England

Finland

Florence

France

Germany

Greece

Holland

Holy Land

Hungary

Iceland

*India

Ireland

Italy

Jamaica

*Japan

Java

Kashmir

Korea

London

Montenegro

*Morocco

Newfoundland

New York

New Zealand

Norway

Panama

Paris

Portugal

Rome

*Russia

*Scotland

*Siam

South Africa

South America

South Seas

*Spain

Sweden

Switzerland

Turkey

Wales

World's Children

* _Also to be had in French at_ 2s. _net each. See "Les Beaux Voyages"
Series._

_For Larger Series of "Peeps at Many Lands and Cities," see list of_
3s. 6d. net _Books._

       *       *       *       *       *

Peeps at Nature

Each containing 16 full-page illustrations, 8 of them in colour.


Bird Life of the Seasons

British Butterflies

British Ferns, Club-Mosses, and Horsetails

British Land Mammals

Common British Moths

Natural History of the Garden

The Naturalist at the Sea-Shore

Pond Life

British Reptiles and Amphibians

Romance of the Rocks

Wild Flowers and their Wonderful Ways

Common British Beetles

       *       *       *       *       *

Peeps at History

Each containing 8 full-page illustrations in colour, and 20 line
drawings in the text.


America

The Barbary Rovers

Canada

France

Germany

Holland

India

Ireland

Japan

Scotland

       *       *       *       *       *

Peeps at Great Railways


Great Western Railway

London and North-Western Railway

North-Eastern and Great Northern Railways (in 1 volume)

South-Eastern and Chatham and London, Brighton and South Coast
Railways (in 1 volume)

Canadian Pacific Railway

       *       *       *       *       *

Peeps at Industries

Each containing 24 full-page illustrations from photographs.


Rubber

Sugar

Tea

       *       *       *       *       *

Other "Peeps" Volumes


Peeps at the British Army

         the Heavens

         Architecture

         Heraldry

         Great Men: Sir Walter Scott

         Postage Stamps

         Royal Palaces of Great Britain

         the Royal Navy

         Great Steamship Lines: The P. and O.

       *       *       *       *       *

"Homes of Many Lands" Series


India. Containing 12 full-page illustrations in colour.

       *       *       *       *       *

Beautiful Britain Series

Large square demy 8vo., bound in cloth, each containing 12 full-page
illustrations in colour.


Abbotsford

Arran, Isle of

Cambridge

Canterbury

Channel Islands

Cotswolds

English Lakes

Firth of Clyde

Girton College

Isle of Man

Isle of Wight

Killarney

London

New Forest

Oxford

Peak Country

Stratford-on-Avon

Thames

Trossachs

North Wales

St. Paul's Cathedral

Wessex

Westminster Abbey

Winchester

Windsor and Eton

Wye, The

Leamington & Warwick

Yorkshire, Vales and Wolds

       *       *       *       *       *

Beautiful Europe Series


Norwegian Fjords

Venice

Belgium

Lake of Como

PRICE 2/= NET EACH

       *       *       *       *       *

Les Beaux Voyages

(A SERIES OF "PEEPS AT MANY LANDS" IN FRENCH)

Large crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 12 full-page illustrations in
colour and a sketch-map.


Algerie

Alsace

Chine

Ecosse

Egypte

Espagne

Indes

Indo-Chine

Japon

Maroc

Russie

Tunisie

PRICE 2/= EACH

       *       *       *       *       *

SCOTT'S Waverley Novels. 25 VOLUMES. _See also list at the end of this
Catalogue._

       *       *       *       *       *

"Pictures of Many Lands" Series. _See list on page 1 of this
Catalogue_.

PRICE 2/6 NET EACH

       *       *       *       *       *

What the Other Children do (16 full-page illustrations from
photographs).

Spring Flowers A Music Book for Children (16 full-page illustrations
in colour).

The Invasions of England (32 illustrations and 12 maps).

       *       *       *       *       *

Bibliotheque Rouge en Couleurs

BEAUTIFUL BOOKS IN FRENCH FOR YOUNG PEOPLE

Large crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 12 full-page illustrations in
colour.


Les Contes de ma Grand'mère

Eric

       *       *       *       *       *

PRICE 2/6 EACH

Large crown 8vo., illustrated.


Stories of Old. (_Small crown 4to._)

Eric; or, Little by Little

St. Winifred's; or, The World of School

Julian Home: A Tale of College Life

Stories from Waverley. _2nd Series._

Scott's Waverley Novels STANDARD EDITION. _See also list at
the end of this Catalogue._

       *       *       *       *       *

PRICE 3/6 NET EACH

Peeps at Many Lands and Cities

_Larger Volumes in the style of the Popular One Shilling and Sixpenny
net "PEEPS AT MANY LANDS AND CITIES" Series._

Each containing 32 full-page illustrations in colour.


The World

The British Empire

The Gorgeous East (India, Burma, Ceylon, and Siam)

The Far East (China, Japan, and Korea)

Oceania (Australia, New Zealand, and South Seas)

       *       *       *       *       *

Large crown 8vo., cloth.

The Open Book of Nature: A Book of Nature Study for Young People. 16
full-page illustrations in colour and 114 reproductions from
photographs, etc.

       *       *       *       *       *

Contes et Nouvelles

BEAUTIFUL BOOKS IN FRENCH FOR YOUNG PEOPLE.

Large square crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 12 full-page
illustrations in colour.


Les Petits Aventuriers en Amérique

La Guerre aux Fauves

Un Tour en Mélanesie

La Case de l'Oncle Tom (8 pictures in colour and 16 in black and
white)

Voyages de Gulliver

       *       *       *       *       *

Great Buildings and How to Enjoy Them

A SERIES OF HANDBOOKS FOR THE AMATEUR LOVER OF ARCHITECTURE

Square demy 8vo., cloth, each containing 48 full-page illustrations
from photographs.


Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture

Gothic Architecture

Greek Architecture

Norman Architecture

Romanesque Architecture

       *       *       *       *       *

PRICE 3/6 EACH

Life Stories of Animals

Large crown 8vo., cloth, each containing 8 full-page illustrations in
colour.


The Black Bear

The Cat

The Dog

The Fowl

The Fox

The Lion

The Rat

The Squirrel

The Tiger

       *       *       *       *       *

Large crown 8vo., cloth, illustrated.


*In the Grip of the Wild Wa

Tales of St. Austin's

The Head of Kay's

Mike: A Public School Story

The Gold Bat

Psmith in the City

Psmith Journalist

The Pothunters

A Prefect's Uncle

The White Feather

*The First Voyages of Glorious

Memory _(Hakluyt)_

*Nipping Bear

*The Adventures of Don Quixote

*Park's Travels in the Interior of

Africa

*By a Schoolboy's Hand

*Exiled from School

*From Fag to Monitor

The Sea Monarch

*The Scouts of Seal Island

*Cook's Voyages and Discoveries

Dana's Two Years Before the

Mast

*The Divers

Stories from Waverly

*The Life of St. Paul

*The Book of Celtic Stories

*The Book of London

*The Book of Stars

*Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress

*Children's Book of Gardening

The Feats of Foozle

Now and Then

The Right Sort

God's Lantern Bearers

*The Kinsfolk and Friends of Jesus

*Children's Book of Art

*Book of Edinburgh

*Black's Boys Book

*Sea Scouts of the "Petrel"

*Muckle John

*Renegade

*Tales from the Poets

*Tom Browne's Schooldays

*Talks about Birds

*The Book of the Railway

*Swiss Family Robinson

*The Heroes

*My Own Stories

The Story of Stories: A Life of Christ for the Young

*Tales from Scottish Ballads

The Story of a Scout

Two Boys in War-Time

*The Story of Robin Hood and His Merry Men

*The Wolf Patrol

*Jack Haydon's Quest

Red Men of the Dusk

The Saints in Story

*The Vicar of Wakefield

The Mystery of Markham

Black Evans

J.O. Jones, and How He Earned

His Living

Jim Mortimer

Green at Greyhouse

Tales of Greyhouse

Secret Seven

*Robinson Crusoe

*Eric; or, Little by Little

*St. Winifred's; or, The World of School

*Julian Home: A Tale of College Life

*Beasts of Business

Hero and Heroine

*Stories. (_Ascott R. Hope_) Now and Then. (_No illustrations_)

Black and Blue

Cap and Gown Comedy (_No illustrations_)

All Astray

*The King Who Never Died

*The Bull of the Kraal

*A Tale of the Time of the Cave Men

Tangerine: A Child's Letters from Morocco

*Willy Wind, and Jock and the Cheeses

*Grimm's Fairy Tales

*Æsop's Fables

*The Arabian Nights

*Hans Andersen's Fairy Tales

*Russian Wonder Tales

*Tales from "The Earthly Paradise"

*Children's Tales of English Minsters

*Greek Wonder Tales

*Scott's Tales of a Grandfather

*Life of Sir Walter Scott

Scott's Poetical Works

Scott's Waverley Novels. _See also list at the end of this Catalogue._


* With illustrations in colour.

       *       *       *       *       *

PRICE 5/= NET EACH

Large crown 8vo., cloth.


Through the Telescope

The Life and Love of the Insect

The Ramparts of Empire

The Moose

The Story of The Highland Regiments

Highways and Byways of the Zoological Gardens

Wild Life on the Wing

       *       *       *       *       *

PRICE 5/= EACH

Crown 8vo., cloth.


Here and There. (_Illustrated_)

Ready-Made Romance

The Schoolboy Abroad

Dramas in Duodecimo

Half-and-Half Tragedy

       *       *       *       *       *

PRICE 6/= EACH

Small square demy 8vo., cloth, with illustrations in colour.


The Fairchild Family

Gulliver's Travels into Several Remote Nations of the World

Uncle Tom's Cabin

Red Cap Tales

Adventurers in America

Red Cap Adventures

Ottoman Wonder Tales

Wonder Tales of Ancient World

       *       *       *       *       *

Cheaper Books Suitable for Young People

PRICE 1/= EACH


Eric; or, Little by Little

Julian Home: A Tale of College Life

St. Winifred's; or, The World of School

Rab and his Friends Stories of London

       *       *       *       *       *

PRICE 1/= NET


Adventures of Teddy Tail of the Daily Mail

       *       *       *       *       *

PRICE 9d.


Black's Painting Book for Children. By AGNES NIGHTINGALE.
Containing 23 page outline pictures for colouring. Small crown 4to.,
bound in attractive cover.

       *       *       *       *       *

PRICE 6d. EACH

Demy 8vo., picture paper covers.


*Eric; or, Little by Little

*St Winifred's; or, The World of School

*Julian Home: A Tale of College Life

Scott's Waverly Novels. _See also list following_

* _These may be had bound together in cloth cover for 2s. 6d._

       *       *       *       *       *

The Waverley Novels

By SIR WALTER SCOTT

The Authentic Editions of Scott are published solely by A. and C.
Black, who purchased along with the copyright the interleaved set of
the Waverley Novels in which Sir Walter Scott noted corrections and
improvements almost to the day of his death. The under-noted editions
have been collated word for word with this set, and many inaccuracies,
some of them ludicrous, corrected.

LIST OF THE NOVELS


Waverley

Guy Mannering

The Antiquary

Rob Roy

Old Mortality

Montrose, and Black Dwarf

The Heart of Midlothian

The Bride of Lammermoor

Ivanhoe

The Monastery

The Abbot

Kenilworth

The Pirate

The Fortunes of Nigel

Peveril of the Peak

Quentin Durward

St. Ronan's Well

Redgauntlet

The Betrothed, etc.

The Talisman

Woodstock

The Fair Maid of Perth

Anne of Geierstein

Count Robert of Paris

The Surgeon's Daughter, etc.

_For Details regarding Editions and Prices see below._

       *       *       *       *       *

List of Editions of the Waverley Novels


New Popular Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 6d. per Volume.

The Portrait Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 1/6 per Volume.

Victoria Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 1/6 per Volume.

Two Shilling Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 2/-per Volume.

Standard Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 2/6 per Volume.

Dryburgh Edition. 25 Volumes. Price 3/6 per Volume.

       *       *       *       *       *

PUBLISHED BY A. & C. BLACK, LTD., 4, 5 AND 6 SOHO SQUARE, LONDON, W.





End of Project Gutenberg's Peeps at Many Lands: Egypt, by R. Talbot Kelly

*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PEEPS AT MANY LANDS: EGYPT ***

***** This file should be named 18647-0.txt or 18647-0.zip *****
This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
        http://www.gutenberg.org/1/8/6/4/18647/

Produced by Bruce Albrecht, Sankar Viswanathan, and the
Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net


Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
will be renamed.

Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
redistribution.



*** START: FULL LICENSE ***

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
http://gutenberg.org/license).


Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic works

1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works.  See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.

1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
States.

1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org

1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
1.E.9.

1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.

1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.

1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg-tm License.

1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
that

- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
     the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
     you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
     owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
     has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
     Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
     must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
     prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
     returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
     sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
     address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
     the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."

- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
     you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
     does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
     License.  You must require such a user to return or
     destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
     and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
     Project Gutenberg-tm works.

- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
     money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
     electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
     of receipt of the work.

- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
     distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.

1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
your equipment.

1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.

1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.


Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm

Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
assistance they need, is critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.


Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.

The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
page at http://pglaf.org

For additional contact information:
     Dr. Gregory B. Newby
     Chief Executive and Director
     gbnewby@pglaf.org


Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
particular state visit http://pglaf.org

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate


Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
works.

Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.


Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.


Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:

     http://www.gutenberg.org

This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.