The Project Gutenberg EBook of Diego Collado's Grammar of the Japanese Language, by Diego Collado This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org Title: Diego Collado's Grammar of the Japanese Language Author: Diego Collado Translator: Richard L. Spear Release Date: April 21, 2007 [EBook #21197] Language: English Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK JAPANESE LANGUAGE *** Produced by David Starner, Keith Edkins and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net [Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they are listed at the end of the text. Page numbers {99} are those of Spear's edition and are referenced in the Table of Contents, the Index and the list of typographical errors. Page numbers (99 relate to the Latin original and are referenced in the Introduction and Footnotes. The reproduction of the Latin original _Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_ has been extracted as a separate Project Gutenberg text No. 17713. Characters that could not be fully rendered in the Latin-1 character set have been "unpacked" and shown within brackets: [~e] [~i] [~u] (e, i, u with tilde: ã and õ should display normally) [vo] [vu] (hacek / caron) [=o] [=u] (macron)] * * * * * DIEGO COLLADO'S GRAMMAR OF THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE Edited and Translated by Richard L. Spear INTERNATIONAL STUDIES, EAST ASIAN SERIES RESEARCH PUBLICATION, NUMBER NINE CENTER FOR EAST ASIAN STUDIES. THE UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS. * * * * * DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OF JOSEPH K. YAMAGIWA * * * * * Table of Contents PREFACE I INTRODUCTION 1 The Grammatical Framework 3 The Phonological System 6 The Morphological System 8 The Structure of Collado's and Rodriguez' Descriptions Contrasted 11 Bibliography 26 Editorial Conventions 28 II _Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_ III A GRAMMAR OF THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE 105 Prologue to the Reader 107 The noun--Its Declension and its Gender 111 Pronouns 118 First Person Pronouns--Ego, etc. 118 Second Person Pronouns--Tu, tui, tibi, etc. 119 Third Person Pronouns--Ille, illa, illud. 120 Relative Pronouns 122 The Formation of the Verb and its Conjugation 123 The Preterit, Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect 124 The Future of the First Conjugation 125 The Imperative of the First Conjugation 125 The Optative of the First Conjugation 126 The Subjunctive of the First Affirmative Conjugation 127 The Infinitive 129 The First Negative Conjugation 131 The Second Affirmative Conjugation 134 The Second Negative Conjugation 135 The Third Affirmative Conjugation 135 The Third Negative Conjugation 136 The Conjugation of the Negative Substantive Verb 137 The Conditional Particles 139 The Potential Verb 140 The Conjugation of Irregular Verbs 141 The Aforementioned Verbs--Their Formation and Diversity 143 Certain Verbs Which of Themselves Indicate Honor 147 Cautionary Remarks on the Conjugations of the Verb 148 The Adverbs: First Section 156 Adverbs of Place 156 Adverbs of Interrogation and Response 159 Adverbs of Time 159 Adverbs of Negation 160 Adverbs of Affirmation 160 Comparative Adverbs 161 Superlative Adverbs 162 Adverbs of Intensity and Exaggeration 162 Accumulative Adverbs 162 Adverbs that Conclude and Claim Attention 163 The Case Prepositions 164 Conjugation and Separation 166 Interjections 167 The Syntax and the Cases that are Governed by the Verbs 168 Japanese Arithmetic and Numerical Matters Concerning Which Much Painful Labor Is Required 174 Some Rules on the Conjugation of the Verb in the Written Language 182 IV WORKS CONSULTED 185 V INDEX TO GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES 187 VI INDEX TO GRAMMATICAL ELEMENTS 189 * * * * * Preface The purpose of this translation of Collado's _Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_ of 1632 is to make more readily available to the scholarly community an annotated version of this significant document in the history of both Japanese language study and grammatical description in general. Collado's work, derived in all its significant features from the _Arte da lingoa de Iapam_ completed in 1608 by João Rodriguez, is in a strict, scholarly sense less valuable than its precursor. However, if used with the _Arte_ as a simplified restatement of the basic structure of the language, Collado's Grammar offers to the student of the Japanese language an invaluable ancillary tool for the study of the colloquial language of the early 17th Century. While less extensive and less carefully edited than the _Arte_, Collado's Grammar has much to recommend it as a document in the history of grammatical description. It is an orthodox description attempting to fit simple Japanese sentences into the framework established for Latin by the great Spanish humanist Antonio Lebrija. Thus, as an application of pre-Cartecian grammatical theory to the structure of a non-Indo-European language, the _Ars Grammaticae_ is an important document worthy of careful examination by those wishing insight into the origins of what three centuries later was to become the purview of descriptive linguistics. The present translation was begun with the able assistance of Ms. Roberta Galli whose contribution to my understanding of the Latin text is most gratefully acknowledged. For his continued encouragement in this undertaking I am grateful to Professor Roy Andrew Miller. Thanks are also due to the Graduate School of the University of Kansas for its support in the preparation of the manuscript and to Ms. Sue Schumock whose capable typing turned a scribbled, multi-lingual draft into a legible manuscript. The imperfections are my own. R.L.S. Lawrence, Kansas May, 1975 {1} * * * * * Introduction In 1632, as the Christian Century in Japan was drawing swiftly to a close, three works pertaining to the Japanese language were being published at Rome by the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith. These works were by the Spanish Dominican Father, Diego Collado (d. 1638), who had spent the years from 1619 to 1622 in Japan. Their publication clearly reflects the vitality of the missionary spirit in that age as well as the important place reserved for language study in the propagation of the faith. The first two works, whose manuscripts had been prepared in Madrid the year before, were a grammar and a dictionary of Japanese. The third, prepared in 1631, while the larger works were being seen through the press, was a guide to the taking of confession written in both Latin and Japanese.[1] The grammar, drafted in Spanish, was published in Latin in 1632 under the title _Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_. It is this work that is translated here. The dictionary, only at the last moment supplied with Latin glosses to supplement those in Spanish, was published in the same year with the title _Dictionarium sive Thesauri Linguae Iaponicae Compendium_.[2] Taken together these three works by Collado constitute the final extant efforts of those who studied the Japanese language first hand during the Christian Century.[3] Two other grammatical works must be mentioned here as central to the proper assessment of Collado's Grammar. They are both by the great Jesuit scholar, Father João Rodnguez (1561-1634);[4] the _Arte da Lingoa de Iapam_ (Nagasaki, 1604-8, hereafter the _Arte_), and the _Arte Breve da Lingoa Iapoa_ (Macao, 1620, hereafter _Arte Breve_). The first {2} is by any standards the greatest grammatical study of Japanese made during the Christian Century. It is further, as we shall see, the primary source for Collado's Grammar. The _Arte Breve_, on the other hand, is not directly related to Collado's work. Indeed it is clear that Rodriguez' 1620 Macao publication was unknown to Collado. Nevertheless, since the _Arte Breve_ is an abbreviated version of the _Arte_ with a purpose similar to the _Ars Grammaticae_, a comparison of these two books with respect to the way they systematize the material from the _Arte_ is included in this introduction to contribute some insight into the treatment of the Japanese language at the beginning of the Tokugawa Period. In presenting this translation two potential audiences are envisioned. The first, and more restricted, group is that having an interest in the history of the Japanese language. It is hoped that an English version of this work will make more readily available this significant material pertaining to the Japanese language as spoken in the early modern period. I use the word significant here to avoid granting excessive value to a work which derives such a large portion of its material and insight from Rodriguez' _Arte_. The second, and wider group for whom this translation is intended is that which has a need for an edited edition of an important document in the history of grammatical description. In this area of scholarship Collado's work is of more than moderate significance. It was accepted for publication by the prestigious Propaganda Press; and, even if those more familiar with Japanese than the editorial board of that Press might have had serious reservations concerning the linguistic accuracy of the text, it is reasonable to assume that the Press judged it to be a good example of grammatical description. It thus represents a grammar of a non-European language which suited the requirements of the day for publication at Rome.[5] {3} In order to permit this translation of the _Ars Grammaticae_ to be of use in both these areas of scholarship I have made an effort to reduce to a minimum those places where a knowledge of either Japanese or Latin is required for the comprehension of the translation. It is sincerely hoped that the result is not an effort that is satisfying to neither, and thus to no one. Because of the derivative nature of the text, this translation has put aside a number of important philological problems as better dealt with within the context of Rodriguez' grammars. This decision has its most obvious consequences in the section on the arithmetic, where innumerable data require exposition. However, since a basic purpose of this translation is within the context of the history of descriptive grammar, these tantalizing side roads have been left unexplored. It is, nevertheless, hoped that this translation will serve as a convenient tool for those wishing to make a more detailed investigation into the philological questions raised by the text. But I must caution those who would undertake such an inquiry that they had best begin with a careful study of the works of Father Rodriguez. With its limitations acknowledged, the _Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_ remains a document worthy of our interest, and I offer this translation in order that Collado's work may more easily find its proper place in the history of descriptive grammar. _The Grammatical Framework_ Collado perceived his task to be the presentation of a grammar of Japanese which would have sufficient scope to equip those dedicated to the propagation of the faith with a knowledge of the proper spoken language of his time. While he concludes his grammar with a brief, and rather presumptuous, statement concerning the written language, his purpose is clearly to train his students in the fundamentals of colloquial speech. His sensitivity to this point is demonstrated by his carefully transforming those examples presented by Rodriguez in the written language in the _Arte_ into correct colloquial expressions in his own grammar. The description is, of course, prescriptive. But given its age and its purpose this ought not to be construed in the contemporary, pejorative {4} sense. Collado, as Rodriguez and indeed all the grammarians of the period, felt obligated to train their students in those patterns of speech which were appropriate to the most polite elements of society. Particularly as they addressed themselves to missionaries, they wished to warn them away from such illiteracies as might undermine their capacities to propagate the faith. The description further reflects the traditional process conceptualization of language. This is particularly obvious in the treatment of the verb. Thus: _Praesens subiunctiui fit ex praesenti indicatiui mutato_ u _in quo finitur in_ eba.... (The present subjunctive is formed from the present indicative by changing the _u_ in which it ends to _eba_....) [p. 23]. In general each of the verbal forms is conceived to be the result of a specified alteration of a basic form. Likewise the nouns are treated within the framework of the declension of cases. The treatment of Japanese forms is based upon a semantic framework within which the formal characteristics of the language are organized. For example, given the construction _aguru coto aró_ (p. 31) and its gloss '_Erit hoc quod ist offere: idest offeret_ (It will be that he is to offer, or he will offer),' it is clear that the _aguru coto_ is classified as an infinitive because of its semantic equivalence to _offere_. The same is true of the latter supine. If the form in Latin is closely associated with such constructions as 'easy to,' or 'difficult to,' the semantically similar form which appears as the element _iomi_ in _iominicui_ 'difficult to read,' must be classed as the latter supine. Rodriguez in his _Arte Breve_ of 1620--unknown to Collado--makes an attempt to classify the structural units of Japanese along more formal lines; but in Collado's treatment the semantic, and for him logical and true, classes established by the formal structure of Latin constitute the theoretical framework through which the Japanese language is to be described. Collado makes reference to two specific sources of influence upon his grammar. The first is included in the title to the first section of the grammar, Antonius Nebrissensis. It is to this great Spanish humanist, {5} better known as Antonio Lebrija (1444-1522), that Collado turns for the model of his description. An examination of Lebrija's grammar, the _Introductiones Latinae_ (Salamanca, 1481), shows that from the basic outline of his presentation, to the organization of subsections and the selection of terminology, there is little departure by Collado from his predecessor. Even in such stylistic devices as introducing the interrogatives by giving the form, following it with "to which one responds," and then listing a number of characteristic answers; Collado is faithful to the _Introductiones_. But it is from his Jesuit colleague, Father João Rodriguez, that Collado receives his most significant influence. There is no section of his grammar that does not reflect Rodriguez' interpretation of the raw linguistic data of Japanese. On the basis of the innumerable examples taken from Rodriguez--most of the substantive sentences are directly quoted from the _Arte_--as well as the parallel listing of forms and identical descriptions of certain grammatical phenomena, it is clear that the writing of the _Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_ consisted to no small degree of abridging the exhaustive material contained in Rodriguez' grammar and arranging it within the framework of Lebrija's _Introductiones_. To say that Collado followed Lebrija in the general structure of his description is not to imply that he fell heir to all of his precursor's virtues. The Salamanca grammar of 1481 is a masterpiece of orderly presentation. Printed in _lettera formata_ with carefully indented subdivisions, it offers the student a clear display of the conjugational system as well as long columns of Latin examples of a given grammatical structure, accompanied on the right side of the page with Spanish equivalents. Collado makes little effort at copying this orderly display. There are in his presentation no paradigms, but instead only loosely connected sentences that talk the student through the various forms of the conjugation; and there is no orderly array of examples. Add to this the innumerable factual and typographical errors, and one is left with a presentation that lacks most of the basic scholarly virtues of its precursor. A similar criticism may be leveled against the work from the point {6} of view of Rodriguez' influence. Without matching the _Introductiones_ in orderliness, the _Arte_ more than compensates for its casual format by containing a mass of exhaustively collected and scrupulously presented linguistic data.[6] There was available no better source than the _Arte_ from which Collado might have culled his examples of Japanese. One doubt that remains in assessing Collado's use of Rodriguez' material is that perhaps his presentation of the most readily understandable material in the _Arte_ is not so much an effort on his part to simplify the learning of Japanese for his students, as it is a reflection of his lack of adequate familiarity with the language he was teaching. _The Phonological System_ A study of the phonological data reveals the _Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_ to be of minimal historical value. Any student of the phonology of early modern Japanese should turn to the far more reliable work of Father Rodriguez. Nevertheless, certain aspects of Collado's transcription require our attention. The most obvious innovation in the representation of the language is Collado's transcription with an _i_ of the palatal consonant which all his contemporaries record with a _y_. Thus in the text we find _iomi_ and _coie_ (terms for native words and Chinese borrowings) where Rodriguez writes _yomi_ and _coye_. This change was affected while the text was being translated from the Spanish manuscript which uses _y_; and Collado himself must have felt the innovation to be of dubious value since he retained _y_ for the spellings in the _Dictionarium_.[7] Collado's handling of the nasal sounds is too inconsistent to be a reliable source for phonological data. Given his rather awkward specification that nasalization is predictable before what we must assume he means to be the voiced stops and affricates,[8] his grammar presents an uncomfortably irregular pattern in the transcription of the phenomena. Thus, on page 39 we find _vo mõdori aró ca?_ as well as {7} _modori aró ca?_. Again, what he presents as the ending _z[~u]ba_ in his description of the formation of the negative conditional (p. 34) appears in _tovazunba_ in its only occurrence in a sample sentence (p. 62). To further confound the issue such forms as _tovazunba_ and _qinpen_ occur in contrast to _sambiacu_, _varambe_, and _varãbe_. In Chart 1 the traditional pattern of the _goj[=u]onzu_ (chart of 50 sounds) is followed as a convenient framework in which to display the transcriptional system employed by Collado. Chart 1 COLLADO'S TRANSCRIPTION SYSTEM _The Simple Series_ /#/ /k/ /g/ /s/ /z/ /t/ /d/ /n/ /[phi]/ /b/ /p/ /m/ /y/ /r/ /w/ /a/ a ca ga sa za ta da na fa ba pa ma ia ra va /i/ i qi gui xi ji chi gi ni fi bi pi mi - ri - /u/ u cu gu su zu tçu zzu nu fu bu pu mu iu ru - /e/ [ie] qe gue xe je te de ne fe be pe me ie re - /o/ [vo] co go so zo to do no fo bo po mo io ro vo _The Long Series_ /au/ [vó] có gó só zó tó dó nó fó bó (pó) mó ió ró vó /uu/ ú cú (gú)(sú) - (tçú) - - fú (bú)(pú) - iú rú - /ou/ [vô] cô (gô) sô zô tô dô nô (fô) (bô) pô mô iô rô vô _The Palatal and Labial Series_ /ky/ /sy/ /ty/ /ny/ /by/ /my/ /kw/ /gy/ /zy/ /dy/ /[phi]y/ /py/ /ry/ /gw/ /a/ (qua)(guia) xa ja cha gia (nha) fia bia pia (mia) (ria) qua gua /u/ qui (guia) xu ju (chu)(giu)(nhu)(fiu) - - (miu) (riu) - - /o/ qio guio xo (jo) cho gio (nho)(fio)(bio) - (mio) (rio) - - ------------------------------------------------------------------------- /au/ qió guió xó jó chó gió - (fió)(bió) - mió (rió) quó guó /uu/ (qiú)(guiú)(xú) jú (chú) giú nhú - - - - (riú) - - /ou/ qiô (guiô) xô jô chô giô nhô fiô (biô) piô (miô) (riô) - - gueô geô neô beô reô In this chart the phonemic grid is presented in a broad phonetic {8} notation while the underlined entries are in the form used by the text. Dashes indicate sequences which do not occur in the Christian material; while the forms in parentheses are sequences which do not occur in the text but have been reconstructed on the basis of the overall system from sequences attested to elsewhere. The forms _ie_, _vo_, _vó_, and _vô_ have been placed in brackets to indicate that neither /e/, /o/, /oo/, or /au/ occur in the syllable initial position; and, where in the modern language they do, the text regularly spells that with an initial _i_ or _v_. The forms in _eô_ at the foot of the chart represent sequences that are phonetically identical to the forms above them, but which are transcribed differently to reflect morphological considerations; e.g., the form _agueô_ from the stem _ague_. The phonetic values of /au/, /uu/, and /ou/ are [[IPA: Open-mid back rounded vowel]:], [u:], and [o:]. Two aspects of the usage of _q_ should be noticed. First, as in the _Arte_, _c_ is changed to _q_ before _o_ and _u_, when the sequence occurs at a morphological juncture; e.g., _ioqu_ 'well,' and _iqó_ 'I shall go.' (This rule does not extend to _a_ in such contexts; cf., _iocatta_ 'was good.') Second, in contrast to the system used by Rodriguez, Collado does not feel compelled to follow _q_ with _u_ in all contexts. Thus what Rodriguez spells as _queredomo_ Collado spells as _qeredomo_. Finally, the text records one usage of the letter _h_ in the exclamation _ha_. _The Morphological System_ Collado's treatment of the morphology contains one quite obvious difference from those of his predecessors: he isolates the particles of the language as separate elements of the structure. While his effort is more or less carelessly maintained by the type setter, his attempt to establish a division between the semantemes (_shi_) and the morphemes (_ji_) of Japanese by establishing formal distance between his _verba_ and _particula_, reflects his consciousness that the morphological elements in Japanese are of a different order than those in Latin. At times, such as when he describes the preterit subjunctive as _agueta raba_, his divisions fly in the face of derivational history. But he can claim a reasonable justification for his decision by citing Rodriguez' rule for the formation of this form; "add _raba_ to the preterit of the verb" (_Arte_, 18v). Perhaps it is a prejudice founded upon familiarity with {9} contemporary romanizations, but I cannot help but consider this attempt to give greater independence to the particles as an improvement in the representation of the morphological system. In all other significant facets of the morphology Collado follows the principles established by Rodriguez with the one exception that in the over-all systematization of the verbal formation and conjugation he follows the classifications established in Lebrija's _Introductiones_ rather than those which Rodriguez inherited from the _Institutiones_ of Alverez. The most significant difference between the two systems is the use by Lebrija of the term subjunctive in his description of the moods where Rodriguez gives independent status to the conjunctive, conditional, concessive, and potential. As we shall see, after presenting the conjugational system of the verb within the framework of Lebrija, Collado breaks the expected sequence of his description of the verb to interject a section on conditional constructions and another on those of the potential. In the treatment of the tenses Collado breaks with Rodriguez in not attempting to establish an imperfect for Japanese, but he does follow him in the overall classification of the conjugations. Thus:[9] 1st Conjugation verbs ending in _e_, _gi_, and e.g., _ague, uru_ _ji_ (_xi_ and _maraxi_) 2nd Conjugation verbs ending in _i_ e.g., _iomi, u_ 3rd Conjugation verbs ending in _ai_, _oi_, and e.g., _narai, ó_ _ui_ To the description of this general system Collado adds the treatment of the substantive verbs. This section in many respects is the weakest in his grammar with a portion of his description lost in composing the final text. Since Collado does not, as Rodriguez, present the conjugations in paradigmatic form, I have extracted from his presentation the most representative forms of the verb _ague, uru_ for each of the categories of the system, and presented them in Chart 2 for reference. CHART 2 THE CONJUGATIONAL SYSTEM _Affirmative_ _Negative_ INDICATIVE MOOD Present aguru aguenu Perfect agueta aguenanda {10} Pluperfect aguete atta aguenande atta Future agueôzu aguru mai Future perfect aguete ar[vo]zu ---- IMPERATIVE MOOD Present ague io aguru na Future agueôzu aguru mai OPTATIVE MOOD Present avare ague io caxi avare aguru na caxi Preterit agueôzu mono vo aguru mai mono vo Future avare ague io caxi avare aguru na caxi SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD Present agureba agueneba Perfect agueta reba aguenanda reba Pluperfect aguete atta reba ---- Future agueô toqi aguru mai qereba PERMISSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD Present agueredomo aguenedomo Preterit agueta redomo aguenanda redomo Future agueôzu redomo aguru mai qeredomo INFINITIVE Present aguru coto aguenu coto Preterit agueta coto aguenanda coto Future agueô coto aguru mai coto GERUND IN _DI_ Present aguru [jibun] aguenu [jibun] Future agueô [jibun] aguru mai [jibun] GERUND IN _DO_ ---- aguete ague[~i]de GERUND IN _DUM_ Present aguru tame aguenu tame Future agueô tame aguru mai tame SUPINE IN _TUM_ ---- ague ni ---- SUPINE IN _TU_ ---- ague ---- PARTICIPLE Present aguru fito aguenu fito Preterit agueta fito aguenando fito Future agueô fito aguru mai fito The forms treated separately are: THE CONDITIONAL Present agueba aguez[~u]ba Preterit agueta raba aguenanda raba Future agueô naraba aguru mai naraba THE POTENTIAL Present aguru ró aguenu coto mo arózu Preterit aguetçu ró aguenanzzu ró Future agueôzu ró aguru mail coto mo arózu {11} _The Structure of Collado's and Rodriguez' Descriptions Contrasted_ In every section of his description, Collado is indebted to the material presented by Rodriguez in his _Arte da Lingoa de Iapam_. The structure of the _Ars Grammaticae_, however, follows a much more simplistic design than that of the _Arte_. As a consequence Collado found it necessary to assemble his data from various sections of Rodriguez' description. In the paragraphs which follow we will briefly sketch the structural relation between these two grammars. As he clearly states in his title to the main portion of the grammar Collado bases his description on the _Introductiones_ of Antonio Lebriya, and more specifically upon that portion of the great Latin grammar which dealt with the parts of speech. Further, he limits himself to the spoken language rather than attempting, as does Rodriguez, an integrated treatment of both the spoken and written grammars. Under these influences Collado's grammar takes on the following form: A Prologue (including the phonology) 3-5 The Body of the Grammar (by parts of speech) 6-61 A Brief Syntax 61-66 A Treatment of the Arithmetic 66-74 A Note on the Written Language 74-75 In contrast Rodriguez' _Arte_, prepared under the influence of Alvarez' _Institutiones_, develops its description over the span of three books which treat both the spoken and written grammar in progressively greater detail. Thus: The Introduction iii-v BOOK I The Declensions 1-2v The Conjugations 2v-54 The Parts of Speech (_Rudimenta_) 55-80v BOOK II The Syntax of the Parts of Speech 83-168 Styles, Pronunciation, Poetics, etc. 168-184 BOOK III The Written Language 184v-206v Names, Titles, etc. 206v-212v The Arithmetic 212v-239 {12} Given these differing formats[10] it is clear that Collado is unable to cope adequately with the more complex aspects of the grammar, specifically those syntactic constructions to which Rodriguez devotes almost an entire book. An analysis of Collado's description and a listing of the portions of Rodriguez' grammar from which material was taken yields the following: _Collado_ _Rodriguez_ Phonology (3-5) {Parts of Speech (55-58) {Book III (173-179v) Nouns (6-13) {Declensions (1-2v) {Parts of Speech (59-61) Adjectives (9-11, 32-33) {Declensions (2-2v) {Conjugations (47-52) {Parts of Speech (61-67) Pronouns (13-18) {Declensions (2v) {Parts of Speech (67-68) Verbs (18-49) {Conjugations (6v-54v) {Parts of Speech (69-73) {Syntax (83v-112v) Adverbs (49-57) {Parts of Speech (73v-77) {Syntax (113-125) Prepositions (57-59) {Parts of Speech (73-73v) {Syntax (140-148v) Conjunctions (59-60) {Parts of Speech (76-76v) {Syntax (130-137) Exclamations (60-61) {Parts of Speech (76-76v) {Syntax (125-130) Syntax (61-66) Book II (83-168) Arithmetic (66-75) Book III (212v-239) Written Language (74-75) Book III (184v-206v) Two aspects of Japanese were not able to be described with any degree of satisfaction by Collado; the adjectives (_adjectiva_) and the prepositions (_praepositio_). His difficulties, attributable to the basic structural difference between Latin and Japanese, were compounded by the fact that Rodriguez too was unable to find a satisfactory solution to their description. With respect to the adjectives, Collado attempts to deal with their functions in the manner appropriate to Latin, that is as a sub-class of {13} nouns (pp. 9-11). He also recognizes their formal similarity to the verb and treats them briefly as a sub-class of the substantive verb (pp. 32-33), but his heavy reliance upon the semantic categories of Latin does not permit him to follow Rodriguez who is able more clearly to recognize their formal as well as their functional distinctiveness. Concerning prepositions, Collado was confronted with an all but insurmountable taxonomic problem. Here too Rodriguez was unable to develop a completely satisfactory descriptive framework. In the _Arte_ the term _posposição_ is used for those particles which function in a manner similar to the Latin prepositions; e.g., _tameni_, _taixite_, and _tomoni_ (cf. 73-73v and 140-148v); the term _artigo_ is used for those particles having the functions of the inflectional endings of Latin; e.g., _ga_, _ye_, and _ni_ (cf. 1-2, 78, and 137-140); and the general term _particula_ is used to cover the broad spectrum of particles that include adverbs, conjunctions, and exclamations, as well as those otherwise unaccounted for elements which end phrases, clauses, and sentences; e.g., _no_, _nite_, and _yo_ (cf. 77-78 and 144-154v). Collado, rather than attempting to refine the system suggested by Rodriguez, follows the _Arte_ in listing as _praepositio_ those elements which translate the Latin prepositions (pp. 57-59) but uses the term _particula_ to cover all the other particles of the language. This tendency of Collado's to retreat from the challenging problems left unresolved by Rodriguez constitutes the greatest weakness of his description. Given concise grammatical descriptions on the one hand and over-simplified versions of previous works on the other, the _Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_ unfortunately falls among the latter. In his shorter work, the _Arte Breve_ of 1620, Rodriguez retains the same general format, but makes every effort to reduce the description to its barest essentials. Thus: BOOK I A General Note on the Language 1-2 An Essay on How to Learn the Language 2v-6 The Orthography 6-8 Composition of the Syllables 8v-9v The Way to Write and Pronounce the Letters 10-12v The Declension of Nouns 13-18 The Conjugation and Formation of Verbs 18-52 {14} BOOK II The Rudimenta 52-59v The Syntax 59v-66v BOOK III The Written Language 67-75 The Various Kinds of Names 75v-98v Of particular interest in the context of Collado's grammar is the manner in which Rodriguez displays the verbal system. While the _Ars Grammaticae_ presents the verbal system as a series of alterational rules to be applied to the base forms, the _Arte Breve_ goes even further than the _Arte_ to differentiate the formational rules from the conjugational displays. Rodriguez tries several devices to elucidate his material. For example, Charts A and B below represent very early attempts to use a bordered format for linguistic description. In order to indicate the differences to be found between the descriptions presented by Rodriguez and Collado, I have extracted the formational rules from the _Arte Breve_ and, setting aside only two short appendices dealing with variant forms, present them here in their entirety. _THE CONJUGATION AND FORMATION OF THE TENSES AND MOODS OF THE VERBS_ _All the verbs of this language may be reduced _(se reduzem)_ to four affirmative and three negative conjugations. This is because the negative conjugation of the adjectival verb, which we discussed before,[11] agrees with the second of the three conjugations; and the conjugation of the substantive verb _S[vo]rai_, _S[vo]r[vo]_, or _soro_, which is an abbreviated form of _Samburai_, _sambur[vo]_[12] both in the affirmative and the negative is reduced to the third conjugation. At this point we will treat the three affirmative and three negative ordinary conjugations of the regular personal verbs.[13] Following this, and on account of its particular usage and formation, we will discuss the conjugation of the adjectival verb._ _The verbs of this language do not change _(naõ f[~e] variedade)_ to show person and number as do those of Latin; rather, one form _(voz)_ {15} is used for all persons, singular and plural. Number and person are understood according to the subject _(Naminativo [_sic_])_, or pronoun, which is joined to the verb. The moods of the verb, which in this language have distinct forms for the tenses, are indicative, imperative, conjunctive, conditional, and preterit participle. The remaining moods are made up of these forms joined to certain particles. Each mood has but three tenses which have distinct forms; these are preterit, present, and future. These forms are signified by the Japanese terms _(vocabulos)_ _Quaco_, _ghenzai_, _mirai_. The preterit imperfect and pluperfect are made up of the present, preterit, and preterit participle together with the substantive verb, as will be seen below in the conjugations._ _Concerning the formation of the tenses and moods of the verbs in general, one is reminded that to understand the actual root _(raiz)_ and the natural formation of all the tenses and moods, both affirmative and negative, it is extremely important to take notice of the usage of the _Goyn_,[14] which are the five vowels _(cinco letras vogaes)_ in the syllables which are below each aforementioned formation; and that it is also important to understand _Canadzucai_,[15] which is the way to write with _Firagana_ as well as the way one joins together syllables, or letters, to form other words _(palauras)_, while noticing which syllable is changed by which, what constitutes long, short, or diphthongal syllables, which combinations cause contraction _(sincope)_, which cause augmentation _(incremento)_ of the verb, whether one makes a syllable liquid _(liquescit)_[16] or not, and how the tenses of the moods are written with the same _Cana_.[17] The term _Goyn_, not only indicates the syllables, or _Cana_, which are transformed to others, such as _Fa_, _Fe_, _Fi_, _Fo_, _Fu_, which are changed to the closely related sounds _Ba_, _Be_, _Bi_, _Bo_, _Bu_ and _Pa_, _Pe_, _Pi_, _Po_, _Pu_; but it also indicates another kind of change from one sound to another in the same order _(ordem)_, as happens among the syllables _Fa_, _Fe_, _Fi_, _Fo_, _Fu_. _Ba_, _Be_, _Bi_, _Bo_, _Bu_. _Ma_, _Me_, _Mi_, _Mo_, _Mu_, {16} etc. where often by rule _(regna)_ _Ma_ is changed to _Mi_; or to the contrary _Bu_ to _Ba_ and _Bi_ to _Ba_, and likewise for others. The greater part of the formation of the tenses of each mood is confined to such changes, as is clearly seen in the way one writes the tense forms with _Cana_. It is to this that another change belongs. That which exists among those syllables having a certain relationship and rapport between them, as _Ma_, _Fa_, _Ba_, _Pa_; _Me_, _Fe_, _Be_, _Pe_; _Mi_, _Fi_, _Bi_, _Pi_; _Mo_, _Fo_, _Bo_, _Po_; _Mu_, _Fu_, _Bu_, _Pu_; with _Mu_ and _V_. Thus, what is written _Vma_ in _Cana_ is written _Muma_, and _Mume_ written for _Vme_ in order to conform more closely to its pronunciation.[18] Also _Mu_ is written for _Bu_[19] so that all the harmony _(armonia)_ in the formations of this language are contained in the rules for _Goyn_ and _Canadzucai_. Those who are informed see, as native speakers, how the tenses are formed for any mood, and which letter, or syllable, must be changed to another to affect a formation. Concerning this matter there is a booklet[20] which teaches _Canadzucai_, and the general rules on the subject. Teachers should have this booklet to teach more easily and advantageously those students who are learning _Cana_. Lacking a knowledge of _Goyn_ and _Canadzucai_, some of the rules which until now have been used in the formation of verbs (some of which I have let remain as they were), are not the original and natural rules as are the _Goyn_.[21] They are rather devices, some forming affirmative tenses and moods from negative forms and others forming them from yet other more remote sources, which appear to correspond to formational rules, but for which the proper rules are not known. The fact is that the affirmative as well as negative are formed from the affirmative, beginning with the root, as will be seen below._ _Speaking in general of the formation of the verb, the forms of the indicative and imperative moods of all three conjugations are formed from the root of the verb. The rest of the tenses in the other affirmative moods are formed from either the indicative or imperative forms. In the same way, the negative indicative present is formed from the root of the verb and the other tenses of the indicative are formed from {17} the present form. The other negative moods are formed from the indicative forms._ FORMATION OF THE TENSES FOR THE INDICATIVE AND IMPERATIVE MOODS OF THE VERBS OF THE FIRST AFFIRMATIVE CONJUGATION _The final syllables of the roots of the first affirmative conjugation, by which the verbs conjugated here are known, and from which the tenses of the indicative will be formed, end in _E_, with the exception of the verb "to do," _Xi_, or _Ii_, with its compounds and certain other verbs which end in _I_. The verbs which belong to the first conjugation, are as follows [in Charts A & B]._ _The verb _Xi_ "to do," with its compounds ending in _Xi_ or _Ii_, follows the formation of the verbs of the first conjugation. _Ii_ is _Xi_ which has been changed _(alterado)_ to _Ii_ because it follows the letter _N_. _Xi_ conforms to the rules for the syllables which are changed _(se mudam)_ to others. Thus:_ Xi _In the present change _Xi_ to Suru, xita, xeô, ôzu, ôzuru, _Suru_. In the preterit add xeyo, xenu, _or_ zu. Faixi _Ta_ to the root. In the future Faisuru, faixita, faixeô, change _Xi_ to _Xeô_. In the faixeyo, faixenu. Tayxi[22] imperative change _Xi_ to _Xe_ Tassuru, taxxita, taxxeò, and add _Yo_, _i_, or _sai_. In taxxeyo, taxxenu. Gaxxi the negative add _Nu_, or _zu_ Gassuru, gaxxita, gaxxeô, to _Xe_._ gaxxeyo, gaxxenu. Zonji _In the present _Ii_ is changed Zonzuru, zonjita, zonjeô, to _Zuru_. In the preterit _Ta_ ôzu, ôzuru, zonjeyo, is added to the root. In the zonjenu. Caronji future _Ii_ is changed to _Ieô_, Caronzuru, caronjita, etc._ _etc._ Vomonji Vomonzuru, vomonjita. Sanji Sanzuru, sanjita. Goranji Goranzuru, goranjita. Soranji Soranzuru, soranjita. Ganji Canzuru, canjita. Manji Manzuru, manjita. _Many of these verbs have another, less used, form made by adding _Ru_ to the root; e.g., _Abi, abiru_; _Mochiy, mochiyru_; _xiy, xiyru_. Among these are some that have only this second form and lack the first; e.g., _Mi, miru_; _Ni, niru_; _Fi, firu_; _Cagammi, cagammiru_; _Ki, kiru_ "to dress," as distinct from _Ki, kuru_ "to come"; and _y, yru_._ {18} CHART A [The Formation of First Conjugation Verbs Ending in _E_] ------------+---------+-----------------+-----------+------------ _Syllables_ |_Roots_ |_Formation_ |_Present_ |_Preterit_ ============+=========+=================+===========+============ |Tate, |_In the present |Tatçuru. |Tateta. | |change _Te_ to | | Te, | |_Tçuru._ The | | |Fate, |remainder are |Fatçuru. |Fateta. | |from the root. | | | |See above._ | | | | | | Ie, |Maje, |_Change _Ie_ to |Mazuru. |Majeta. | |_Zuru_ in the | | | |present. The | | | |remainder are | | | |from the root. | | | |See above._ | | | | | | |Saxe, |_In the present |Sasuru. |Saxeta. Xe, | |change _Xe_ to | | | |Suru. The | | |Mairaxe, |remainder are |Mairasuru. |Mairaxeta. | |from the root. | | | |See above._ | | ============+=========+=================+===========+============ ------------+---------+------------+-------------+----------- _Syllables_ |_Roots_ |_Future_ |_Imperative_ |_Negative_ ============+=========+============+=============+=========== |Tate, |Tateô, ôzu, |Tateyo. |Tatenu, | |ôzuru. |Tatei, |_or_, zu. Te, | | |tatesay.[23] | |Fate, |Fateô, ôzu |Fateyo, |Fatenu, | |ôzuru. |_etc._ |_or_, zu. | | | | | | | | Ie, |Maje, |Majeô. |Majeyo, |Majenu, | | |_etc._ |_or_, zu. | | | | |Saxe, |Saxeô. |Saxeyo. |Saxenu, Xe, | | | |_or_, zu. | | | | |Mairaxe, |Mairaxeô. |Mairaxeyo, |Mairaxenu, | | |_etc._ |_or_, zu. | | | | ============+=========+============+=============+=========== {19} CHART B ------------+---------+-----------------+------------+----------- _Syllables_ |_Roots_ |_Formation_ |_Present_ |_Preterit_ ============+=========+=================+============+=========== Be, |Curabe, |_In the present |Curaburu. |Curabeta. | |tense of these | | | |eight forms, | | Fe, |Fe, |change _E_ to |Furu, _or_, |Feta. | |Vru. _In the |feru. | | |preterit add | | Ghe, |Aghe, |_Ta_ to the root.|Aghuru. |Agheta. | |In the future | | | |_ô, ôzu, ôzuru_ | | Ke, |Tokoke, |to the root. |Todokuru. |Todoketa. | |In the Negative | | Me, |Motome, |present add |Motomuru. |Motometa. | |_Nu_, or _zu_ | | Ne, |Fane, |to the root._ |Fanuru. |Faneta. Re, |Fanare, | |Fanaruru. |Fanareta. Ye, |Ataye, | |Atayuru. |Atayeta. +---------+-----------------+------------+----------- |De, |_In the present |Dzuru. |Deta. | |change _De_ to | | |Ide, |_Dzuru_. The |Idzuru. |Ideta. [De,] | |other tenses | | |M[vo]de, |are formed, as |M[vo]dzuru. |M[vo]deta. | |above, from | | |Mede, |the root._ |Medzuru. |Medeta. | | | | ============+=========+=================+============+=========== ------------+---------+------------+----------------+----------- _Syllables_ |_Roots_ |_Future_ |_Imperative_ |_Negative_ ============+=========+============+================+=========== Be, |Curabe, |Curabeô, |Curabeyo, |Curabenu, | |ôzu, ôzuru. |ei, sai. |_or_, Curabezu. | | | | Fe, |Fe, |Feô, ôzu, |Feyo, fei, |fenu, | |ôzuru. |fesai. |fezu. | | | | Ghe, |Aghe, |Agheô, |Agheyo, |Aghenu, | |_etc._ |_etc._ |_etc._ | | | | Ke, |Tokoke, |Todokeô. |Todokeyo, |Todokenu, | | |_etc._ |_etc._ Me, |Motome, |Motoneô. |Motomeyo, |Motomenu, | | |_etc._ |_etc._ Ne, |Fane, |Faneô. |Faneyo. |Fanenu. Re, |Fanare, |Fanareô. |Fanareyo. |Fanarenu. Ye, |Ataye, |Atayeô. |Atayeyo. |Atayenu. +---------+------------+----------------+----------- |De, |Deô, ôzu, |Deyo, |Denu. | |_etc._ |_etc._ | |Ide, |Ideô, ôzu. |Ideyo. |Idenu. [De,] | | | | |M[vo]de, |_This verb is defective and lacks | |other forms._ |Mede, |_This verb is defective and has no | |other forms_. ============+=========+============+================+=========== {20} FORMATION OF THE OPTATIVE, CONJUNCTIVE, AND CONDITIONAL MOODS, AND THE PARTICIPLE _The optative mood does not have forms of its own but compensates for this in part by adding to the imperative certain particles which indicate desire, in part by adding to the future indicative particles which show regret for not doing something, and in part by circumlocutions with the conditional mood and certain particles, as will be seen in the conjugations._ _The conjunctive mood has two sorts of proper forms. The first is the common and ordinary form ending in _Eba_, corresponding to the Latin _cum_. The other ends in _Domo_, corresponding to the particle "although _(posto que)_." The other verbs of this mood do not have their own forms, but are expressed by circumlocutions as we shall see.[24]_ _The present tense of the first conjunctive is formed from the present indicative by changing the final _Ru_ to _Reba_; e.g., _Motomureba_. For the preterit _Reba_ is added to the preterit indicative; e.g., _Motometareba_. For the future the final _Ru_ of the third form of the future indicative is changed to _Reba_; e.g., _Motomeôzureba_. For a second form of the future the syllable _R[vo]_ is added to the indicative preterit perfect; e.g., _Motometar[vo]_. This particle is _Ran_ in the written language; e.g., _Motometaran_.[25] An utterance _(oraçam)_ does not end in this form, but must be followed by a noun.[26]_ _The present tense of the second conjunctive is formed by changing the final _Ru_ of the present indicative to _Redomo_; e.g., _Motomuredomo_. For the preterit _Redomo_ is added to the indicative preterit perfect; e.g., _Motometaredomo_. Strictly speaking this form is _Motomete aredomo_, losing the _E_ of the participle. Furthermore, _Motometa_, together with the other preterit forms in _Ta_ is from _Motometearu_ which is first elided to _Motometaru_ and then by common usage _(pratica)_ to _Motometa_. All of which is seen in its _Canadzucai_. For the future, the final _Ru_ of the future indicative is changed to _Redomo_; e.g., _Motomeôzuredomo_._ _The conditional mood, for the present tense, is formed by adding the syllable _Ba_ to the root of the verb and _Naraba_ or _Ni voiteua_ to the {21} present tense form; e.g., _Motomeba_, _motomuru naraba_, and _motomuruni voiteua_. For the preterit, _Raba_, _Naraba_, or _Ni voiteua_ are added to the indicative preterit; e.g., _Motometaraba_, which is in reality _Motomete araba_, _motometa naraba_, and _motometani voiteua_. For the future _Naraba_ or _Ni voiteua_ are added to the future forms; e.g., _Motomeô naraba_ and _motomeôni voiteua_. The present tense forms are also used for the future._ VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION THAT END IN I _There are some irregular verbs ending in _I_ which follow the formational rules of the first conjugation, both affirmative and negative. There are a precise number of them. Those which have been found to date are shown below. They are formed for the present indicative by changing _I_ to _Uru_, for the preterit by adding _Ta_ to the root of the verb, and for the future by adding long _û_, _ûzu_, or _ûzuru_ to the same root. For the present conditional _Ba_ is added to the root, for the preterit _Raba_ is added to the preterit indicative, and for the future _Naraba_ is added to the future indicative. For the present conjunctive the _Ru_ of the present indicative is changed to _Reba_, for the preterit _Reba_ is added to the same preterit indicative, and for the future the final _Ru_ of the future is changed to _Reba_. All the other forms are formed as has been stated for the formation of the first conjugation. Thus:[27]_ { Abi, aburu, abita, abiû, ûzu, ûzuru, abiyo, _or_ sai, abiba, { taraba. { Cabi, caburu, cabita, cabiû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, sai, biba, { bitaraba. Abi { Carabi, caraburu, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, sai, biba, taraba. { Sabi, saburu, sabita, sabiû, ûzu, ûzuru, sabiyo, bisai, biba, { taraba. { Vabi, vaburu, vabita, vabiû, ûzu, ûzuru, yo, sai, biba, { bitaraaba. { Nobi, buru, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba. { Corobi, buru, bita, biû, biûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, { bitaraba. Obi { Forobi, buru, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba. { Fitobi, bu, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba. { Fokorobi, bu, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba. Ubi { Furubi, bu, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba. {22} Vochi, { Chi _to_ } Votçuru, chita, chiû, chiyo, chiba, tçureba. Cuchi, { Tçuru } Cutçuru, chita, chiû, chiyo, chiba, tçureba. Fagi, { _Change_ } Fadzuru, fagita, giû, giyo, giba, gitaraba. Vogi, { Gi _to_ } Vodzuru, gita, giû, giyo, giba, gitaraba. Negi, { Dzu } Nedzuru, gita, giû, giyo, giba, gitaraba. Mochiy, } _the_ { Mochiyuru, mochiyta, chiyû, yûzu, ûzuru, iyo, } _final_ { yba, yttaraba. Xiy, } Y { Xiyuru, xiyta, yû iyo, yba ytaraba. Mimixiy, } _to_ { Mimixiyta, mimixiyte, _Defective_. Mexiy, } Yuru { Mexiytaru, mexiyte, _Defective_. Y, yru, yta, yû, ûzu, ûzuru, yyo, yba, yreba. _To be_ Ki, kiru, kita kiû, kiyo, _&c._ _To wear_ Ki, kuru, kita, kô, kôzu, kôzuru, koyo _or_ koi. _To Come_ Coru, coruru, corita, coriû, _&c._ Furi, fururu, furita, furiû, _&c._ Iki, ikuru, ikita, ikiû, _&c._ Ideki, idekuru, idekita, idekiû, _&c._ Deki, dekuru, dekita, dekiû, _&c._ Voki, vokuru, vokita, vokiû, _&c._ Tçuki, tçukuru, tçukita, tçukiû, _&c._ Vori, voruru, vorita, voriû, _&c._ Vrami, vramuru, vramita, vramiû, _&c._ Cagammi, cagammiru, cagammita, cagammiû, _&c._ Mi, miru, mita, miû, _&c._ Ni, niru, nita, niû, _&c._ Sughi, sughuru, sughita, sughiû, _&c._ FORMATION OF THE VERBS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION _All the roots of second conjugation verbs end in_ I. _There are eight final syllables for these verbs; i.e._, Bi, Chi, Ghi, Ki, Mi, Ni, Ri, Xi. _It is by these syllables that the verbs of the second conjugation (except for those mentioned above as being in the first conjugation) are recognized, and from which the tenses are formed._ _The roots ending in the syllables_ Bi, Ghi, Ki, Mi, _and_ Ri _change the_ I _to_ V _for the present tense; e.g._, Tobi, tobu; Coghi, coghu; Caki, caku; Yomi, yomu; Kiri, kiru. _Those ending in_ Chi _change to_ Tçu _for the present; e.g._, Mochi, motçu; Cachi, catçu; Tachi, tatçu. _Those ending in_ Ni _change to_ Nuru _for the present; e.g._, Xini, xinuru; Yni, ynuru.[28] {23} _Those ending in _Xi_ change to _Su_ for the present; e.g., _Fanaxi, fanasu_; _Cudaxi, cudasu_; _Taraxi, tarasu_._ _For the preterit those ending _Obi_ and _Omi_ change to _ôda_; e.g., _Yomi, yôda_; _Tobi, tôda_; _Yobi, yôda_; _Yorocobi, yorocôda_. _Tomi_ becomes _tonda_._ _Those ending in _Abi_ and _Ami_ change to _[vo]da_; e.g., _Yerabi, yer[vo]da_; _Vogami, vog[vo]da_; _Yami, y[vo]da_._ _Those ending in _Imi_ change to _ûda_; e.g., _Najimi, naj[vu]da_; _Nijimi, nij[vu]da_; _Ximi, xûda_.[29]_ _Those ending in _Umi_ and _Ubi_ change their endings to _Vnda_ or in some instances _ûda_. While some have two forms others have only one form which is seen in use, the more general is _Vnda_; e.g., _Musubi, musunda_; _Susumi, susunda_ or _susûda_; _Nusumi, nusunda_ or _nusûda_; _Sumi, sunda_ or _sûda_; _Cumi, cunda_ only._ _Those ending in _Ebi_ and _Emi_ change to _Eôda_; e.g., _Sakebi, sakeôda_; _Sonemi, soneôda_._ _Those ending in _Ghi_ change to _Ida_; e.g., _Auoghi, auoida_; _Voyoghi, voyoida_; _Coghi, coida_._ _Those ending in _Ni_ change to _Inda_; e.g., _Xini, xinda_; _Yni, ynda_._ _Those ending in _Chi_ and _Ri_ change to _Tta_; e.g., _Machi, matta_; _Cachi, catta_; _Tachi, tatta_; _Kiri, kitta_; _Chiri, chitta_; _Cari, catta_._ _Those ending in _Ki_ and _Xi_ change to _Ita_; e.g., _Caki, caita_; _Faki, faita_; _Nuki, nuita_; _Todoki, todoita_; _Sosoki, sosoita_; _Saxi, saita_; _Fataxi, fataita_; _Maxi, maita_ or _maxita_; _Coxi, coita_ or _ oxita_. The following add _Ta_ to the root; e.g., _Moxi, moxita_; _Muxi, muxita_; _Fuxi, fuxita_; _Mexi, mexita_._ _The future can be formed in two ways. The first and more common way is to change _I_ to _[vo]_, _[vo]zu_, or _[vo]zuru_; e.g., _Yomi, yom[vo], yom[vo]zu, yom[vo]zuru_; _Yerabi, yerab[vo]_, etc.; _Kiri, kir[vo]_; _Xini, xin[vo]_; _Auoghi, auog[vo]_.[30] Those ending in _Chi_ change to _T[vo]_; e.g., _Cachi, cat[vo]_, etc.; _machi, mat[vo]_. Those ending in _Xi_ change to _S[vo]_; e.g., _M[vo]xi, m[vo]s[vo]_; _Nagaxi, nagas[vo]_; _Mexi, mes[vo]_; _Coxi, cos[vo]_, etc. The other way, which is easy too, is to change the final _V_ of the present indicative to _[vo]_; e.g., _Yomu, yom[vo]_; _Kiku, kik[vo]_; _M[vo]su, m[vo]s[vo]_; _Mesu, mes[vo]_. Those ending in {24} _çu_ change to _T[vo]_; e.g., _Tatçu, tat[vo]_; _Catçu, cat[vo]_. Those ending in _Nuru_ change to _N[vo]_; e.g., _Xinuru, xin[vo]_; _Ynuru, yn[vo]_. This second rule seems to be more naturally in accord with the rules for the Japanese language._ _The imperative changes the final _I_ of the root to _E_. Those ending in _Chi_ change to _Te_; e.g., _Yome_; _Kike_; _Tamochi, tamote_; _Vchi, ute_; _Machi, mate_._ _The present conjunctive is formed by adding _Ba_ to the imperative; e.g., _Yomeba_; _Tateba_.[31] For the preterit, _Reba_ is added to the preterit indicative; e.g., _Yôdarebe_.[32] For the future the final _Ru_ of the future indicative is changed to _Reba_; e.g., _Yom[vo]zureba_. The conjunctive in _Domo_ is formed in the same manner; e.g., _Yomedomo, yôdaredomo, yom[vo]zuredomo_._ _The conditional is formed from the future indicative by changing the _[vo]_ to _Aba_; e.g., _Yomaba_; _Tataba_.[33] The preterit is formed by adding _Raba_ to the indicative preterit; e.g., _Yôdaraba_; _Tattaraba_.[34]_ _The preterit participle is formed from the preterit by changing the _A_ to _E_; e.g., _Yôde_; _Kite_; _Tatte_. The present participle, in _Te_, is formed by adding _Te_ ['hand'] to the root of any verb. This is properly a substantive and thus governs the genitive as do the other substantives. It does not indicate tense; e.g., _Yomite_; _Cakite_; _Machite_, etc._ _The negative present can be formed in two ways. The first, and that which accords with the rules for _Canadzucai_, is formed by changing _I_ of the root to _Anu_ or _Azu_; e.g., _Corobi, corobanu, corobazu_; _Yomi, yomanu_, etc.; _Coghi, coghanu_; _Caki, cacanu_;[35] _Kiri, kiranu_; _ini, inanu_. Those ending in _Chi_ change to _Tanu_; e.g., _Tachi, tatanu_. Those ending in _Xi_ change to _Sanu_; e.g., _Fanasanu_. Another formation common to all is made with the future indicative by changing _[vo]_ to _Anu_ or _Azu_; e.g., _Corob[vo], corobanu, corobazu_; _Yom[vo], yomanu_, etc.; _Cogh[vo], coghanu_; _Cak[vo], cakanu_; _Kir[vo], kiranu_; _In[vo], inanu_; _Tat[vo], tatanu_; _Mat[vo], matanu_; _Fanas[vo], fanasanu_. This rule is common to all three conjugations by changing the affirmative future indicative _[vo]_ to _Anu_ and the _ô_ {25} and _û_ to _Nu_ or _Zu_;[36] e.g., _Todomeô, todomenu, todomezu_; _Saxeô, saxenu_, etc.; _Tateô, tatenu_; _Miû, minu_; _Yom[vo], yomanu_; _Tat[vo], tatanu_; _Fanas[vo], fanasanu_; _Narau[vo], narananu_; _Vomou[vo], vomouanu_; _Furuuo, furuuanu_. For the second conjugation preterit, those in _Nu_ are changed to _Nanda_: e.g., _Yomananda_. For the preterit participle _Da_ is changed to _De_; e.g., _Yomanande_. For the second form of the negative participle, the _Nu_ is changed to _Ide_; e.g., _Yomaide, Corobaide_, _Tataide_, _Totonouaide_. For the future the particle _majij_[37] or _mai_ is added to the affirmative present indicative; e.g., _Yomumajij, yomumai_; _Matçumajij, matçumai_._ FORMATION OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION AND THE ROOTS FROM WHICH THE TENSES ARE FORMED _The final syllables of the third conjugation are the diphthongs _Ai_, _Oi_, _Vi_. By these syllables the verbs are known to belong to this conjugation, and from them the tenses are formed. The present indicative is formed by changing _Ai_ to _[vo]_, _Oi_ to _ô_, and _Vi_ to _û_; e.g., _Narai, nar[vo]_; _Vomoi, vomô_; _furui, furû_. The preterit is formed by adding the syllable _Ta_ to the present; e.g., _Nar[vo]ta_, _Vomôta_, _Furûta_. The future is formed by changing the final _I_ of the root to _V[vo], v[vo]zu, v[vo]zuru_; e.g., _Narau[vo], narau[vo]zu_, etc.; _Vomou[vo], vomou[vo]zu_, etc.; _Furuu[vo], furuu[vo]zu_, etc. The present imperative is formed by changing the final _I_ to _Ye_; e.g., _Naraye_, _Vomoye_, _Furuye_._ _For the present conjunctive _Ba_ or _Domo_ is added to the imperative; e.g., _Narayeba, narayedomo_; _Vomoyeba, vomoyedomo_; _Furuyeba, furuyedomo_. For the preterit _Reba_ or _Redamo_[38] is added to the indicative preterit; e.g., _Nar[vo]tareba, nar[vo]taredomo_; _Vomôtareba, vomôtaredomo_; _Furûtareba, furûtaredomo_._ _The present conditional is formed by changing _[vo]_ of the future to _Aba_; e.g., _Narauaba_, _Vomouaba_, _Furuuaba_. The preterit is formed by adding _Raba_ to the indicative preterit; e.g., _Nar[vo]taraba_, _Vomôtaraba_, _Furûtaraba_._ {26} _The negative present is formed by changing the _I_ of the root to _Vanu_ or _vazu_; e.g., _Narai, narauanu, narauazu_; _Vomoi, vomouanu_, etc.; _Furui, Furuuana_, etc. This form can also be formed from the future by changing the _[vo]_ to _Anu_ or _azu_; e.g., _Narau[vo], narananu_, etc. For the preterit the _Nu_ is changed to _Nanda_; e.g., _Narauananda_. For the preterit participle the _Da_ is changed to _De_; e.g., _Narauanande_. For the second form the _Nu_ of the present is changed to _Ide_; e.g., _Narauaide_, _Vomouaide_, _Furuuaide_. For the future the particle _Majii_,[39] _maji_, or _mai_ is added to the affirmative present indicative; _e.g._, _Nar[vo]majii, nar[vo]maji, nar[vo]mai_; _Vomômajii, ji_, or _mai_; _Furûmajii, ji_, or _mai_._ _The verb _Yy_ 'to speak' becomes _Yû, yûta, yu[vo], yye, yuanu_. _Yei_ or _yoi_ 'to become sick' becomes _Yô, yôta, you[vo], yoye, yonanu_. The substantive verb _Saburai_, which also belongs to this conjugation, becomes _Sabur[vo], saburauanu_; and _S[vo]rai_ becomes _S[vo]r[vo], soro, s[vo]raite, s[vo]raye, sorouanu_._ Rodriguez follows these formational rules with a full display of all the forms of the three conjugations. In his display he, like Alvarez before him, recapitulates the appropriate rules for each form. Collado nowhere presents his conjugational system as a paradigm but does, as we shall see, include a full complement of example sentences in his description, something which Rodriguez does not do in the _Arte Breve_. _Bibliography_ In the examination of any portion of the Christian materials certain works are indispensable. Father Johannes Laures, S.J., _Kirishitan Bunko_ (Tokyo, 1957) remains the basic bibliographic source for the study of all sources of the Christian Century, while Hashimoto Shinkichi, _Kirishitan ky[=o]gi no kenky[=u]_ (Tokyo, 1929) and Doi Tadao, _Kirishitan gogaku no kenky[=u]_ (Tokyo, 1942) serve as indespensible guides to our understanding of the linguistic aspects of the field. A later contribution to the general bibliography has been made by Fukushima Kunimichi, _Kirishitan shiry[=o] to kokugo kenky[=u]_ (Tokyo, 1973). The basic grammatical study of the period, based upon the _sh[=o]mono_ materials, is Yuzawa K[=o]kichir[=o], _Muromachi jidai gengo no kenky[=u]_ {27} (Tokyo, 1958). More closely related to the language reflected in the text is his "Amakusabon Heike monogatari no goh[=o]," in _Ky[=o]iku ronbunsh[=u]_ (no. 539, Jan. 1929). An English treatment of the grammatical system of the period is to be found in R. L. Spear, "A Grammatical Study of _Esopo no Fabulas_," an unpublished doctoral thesis (Michigan, 1966). The phonology has been carefully analyzed by [=O]tomo Shin'ichi, _Muromachi jidai no kokugo onsei no kenky[=u]_ (Tokyo, 1963), with a valuable contribution made in English by J. F. Moran, "A Commentary on the _Arte Breve da Lingoa Iapao_ of João Rodriguez, S.J., with Particular Reference to Pronunciation," an unpublished doctoral thesis (Oxford, 1971). This latter work presents an exhaustive examination of the phonological system reflected in the _Arte Breve_ of 1620 within the framework of Berhard Bloch's phonemic theory. Two lexical works have been used as basic references in this translation. The _Vocabulario de Lingoa de Iapam_ (hereafter the _Vocabulario_) produced by the Jesuit Mission Press at Nagasaki in the years 1603 and 04. In a carefully annotated version by Professor Doi, under the title _Nippo jisho_ (Tokyo, 1960), this work is the most important single source for the vocabulary of the period. The second work is the _Dictionarium sive Thesauri Linguae Iaponicae Compendium_ (hereafter the _Dictionarium_) which is the companion piece to the present text. This dictionary has been carefully edited and cross-referenced by [=O]tsuka Mitsunobu, under the title _Koriyaado Ra Su Nichi jiten_ (Tokyo, 1966). In this form it has served as a constant aid to the translator in the determination of the proper glosses for the lexical items in the text. The aforementioned _Arte_ of 1604-08 by Rodriguez, has been the single most frequently used tool in the preparation of this translation.[40] As the most significant influence upon Collado's work and the source for most of his material, both theoretical and practical, I have related the two works at every point in the translation. In its Japanese version by Professor Doi, _Rodorigesu Nihon daibunten_ (Tokyo, 1950), this work has been invaluable in gaining a clearer understanding of many of the passages which might have otherwise been obscure. Rodriguez' _Arte Breve_ of 1620, while having no influence upon the preparation of the _Ars Grammaticae_, is nevertheless of fundamental {28} importance as a work against which Collado's treatment of Japanese grammar is to be judged. This shorter grammar is as yet to be fully translated into English--Moran having limited his study to the treatment of the phonology. With respect to the text itself I have made this translation on the basis of the facsimile edition published by the Tenri Central Library in 1972 as part of its _Classica Japonica_ series. [=O]tsuka Takanobu, _Koiyaado-cho Nihongo bunten_ (Tokyo, 1934) and its revised edition under the title of _Koriyaado Nihon bunten_ (Tokyo, 1957) have served as invaluable aids at every step of the translation. [=O]tsuka's second edition is of invaluable scholarly importance because it contains a cross-reference to the Spanish manuscript from which Collado prepared the printed Latin edition as well as a concordance to the Japanese vocabulary.[41] This translation attempts to supplement [=O]tsuka's invaluable contribution by relating the Latin text of this grammar with Rodriguez' _Arte_. _Editorial Conventions_ The Latin matrix of the text is printed in italic letters while the Japanese is in roman. For this translation I have reversed the convention. (In footnotes where the text is quoted the style of the original is followed.) In making editorial corrections in the Japanese material the corrected version is presented in brackets with periods to indicate the general location; e.g., _mairu mai queredomo_ [... qeredomo] (The only exception to this rule is the correcting of a missing open _o_, q.v.) Sentences that have been taken from the _Arte_ are indicated by the parenthetical recording of the leaf number of the citation immediately after the sentence; e.g., _xô tame no chôqui gia_ (22) 'it is.... Shorter sentences and specific words that in all likelihood have been taken from the _Arte_ are not listed if they are to be found in the section elsewhere noted as being the source of the material covered. Any {29} significant alteration in the form of the source is noted. Since the _Arte_ is numbered by the leaf, _v_ is added to the number to indicate the _verso_. All the corrections made by the _errata_ (on page 75 of the text) have been applied to the text without notation unless the correction is itself in error. The punctuation follows the text with the following exceptions; 1. In translating from Latin the English follows modern rules of punctuation. 2. Single quotes have been introduced into the text to mark glosses and translations. 3. In transcribing the Japanese citations any alteration of the original punctuation is noted. 4. The spacing of words in Japanese--a relatively casual matter in the text--has been regularized on the basis of the predominant pattern. 5. Two specific rules, based upon Collado's more or less consistent usage, are followed in the citing of verb forms: a. In the most frequent citation of verbs, where the root form is followed by the present indicative ending, a comma is used; e.g., _ari,u_; _ague,uru_; _mochi,tçu_ b. In an alternate form of citation, where the two forms are given in their entirety, a colon is used; e.g., _ari:aru_; _ague:aguru_; _mochi:motçu_ Spelling and accentuation are treated in the following manner: 1. The _long-s_ in all instances is represented by _s_. 2. The usage of _v_ and _u_ has been regularized: the _v_ serves as the consonant; and _u_ as the vowel, semi-vowel, and orthographic symbol; e.g., _vaga_, _uie_, _quan_, and _agueta_. 3. The predictable nasalization--marked by a tilde in the text--has not been included in the translation unless the presence of nasalization is morphologically significant; e.g., _tobu:tõda_. {30} 4. The accent grave--which appears in no discernible pattern--is not transcribed in the translation. 5. The accent acute is used in the translation to mark the long _ú_ [u:] and the long, open _ó_ [[IPA: Open-mid back rounded vowel]:], in those places where the length is marked by Collado. Since the most frequent typographical error in the text is the failure to mark the presence of these long syllables, I follow the convention of correcting the absence of this feature in the Latin text by using the inverted caret in the translation. Thus, the appearance in the translation of _mósu_ indicates that Collado recorded the length of this word, either by an accent acute (e.g., _mósu_), or an inverted caret (e.g., _m[vo]su_). The appearance of _m[vo]su_ indicates that he did not, and that its absence is being corrected. The form _m[vo]su_ in the translation is therefore the shorthand equivalent for what would more regularly be _mosu_ [_mósu_]. 6. The circumflex, which indicates the long, closed _ô_ [o:], is corrected as other errors by placing the corrected version of the item in brackets; e.g., _roppio_ [_roppiô_]. * * * * * ARS GRAMMATICAE IAPONICAE LINGVAE IN GRATIAM ET ADIVTORIVM eorum, qui prædicandi Euangelij causa ad Iaponiæ Regnum se voluerint conferre. _Composita, & Sacræ de Propaganda Fide Congregationi dicata à Fr. Didaco Collado Ordinis Prædicatorum per aliquot annos in prædicto Regno Fidei Catholicæ propagationis Ministro._ [Illustration] ROMÆ, Typis & impensis Sac. Congr. de Propag. Fide. MDCXXXII. _SVPERIORVM PERMISSV_. {105} * * * * * A Grammar of the Japanese Language FOR THE SAKE AND HELP of those who wish to go to the Kingdom of Japan to preach the Gospel. Composed and dedicated to the Blessed Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith by Brother Didico Collado, O.P., who was for many years in that Kingdom as a Minister for the Propagation of the Catholic Faith. [Illustration] Printed by the Blessed Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith. 1632 BY PERMISSION OF THE SUPERIORS. {106} * * * * * It may be published if it please the Most Reverend Father, Master of the Holy Apostolic Palace. For the Archbishop of Umbria. The Vicar General. It may be published. Brother Nicolaus Riccardius, Master of the Holy Apostolic Palace, Order of Preachers. {107} * * * * * Prologue to the Reader _With Some Advice on the Correct Pronunciation of the Japanese Language_ Long ago, at the beginning of the establishment of our orthodox faith in the Japanese kingdom, a grammar of this language was made by Father Ioannus Rodriguez of the Society of Jesus.[42] However, since things rarely turn out perfect at first attempt, and, because of the passing years that have made it difficult to find a copy of this grammar; I thought that it would honor God and the ministers who preach the faith (which cannot be taught without the use of language) if I were to select examples (and there are many) that are useful to this language, neglect those not accepted by the experts of the language, add, with the help of God (who gives words to the evangelists), the words that I have learned from experience, practice, and continuous reading, and by such means offer up a handbook of the Japanese language in which I would bring together in a brief span these examples with those precepts which the preachers (for whom I began this work) need to learn of the Japanese language. This is done because examples are necessary with the rules and precepts so that it is possible to demonstrate the rule which has just been explained. Not only have these examples been selected for the greater help and enjoyment of the students, but also their explanation has been added in Latin (which is the language most common to theologians); thus the teacher will have very little left to be desired. Even if all the elements included in this grammar, as in the dictionary (which with the help of God I plan to publish shortly),[43] are polished enough and sure enough to be used with trust; I would still want them to be submitted to the judgement of the reader so that the preaching of the faith, carried on with a more correct language, may become more fruitful. When two vowels follow each other in any Japanese word, they are not pronounced as in the Latin word _valeo_ or in the Spanish, _vaca_, but each is pronounced independently; _v_, _a_; _v_, _o_; _v_, _i_. {108} The letter _s_ is pronounced as _sç_; e.g., _susumuru_, _sçusçumuru_. The letter _j_ is pronounced smoothly (_blande_), as in the Portuguese _joaõ_ and _judeo_. The letter _x_ is also pronounced smoothly, as in the Portuguese (4 _queixumes_. When there is the sign ^ over the letter _o_ it is pronounced _ou_ with the lips almost closed and the mouth partly closed; e.g., _buppô_. When there is the sign v or ´ over the letter _o_ it is pronounced with the mouth open as if there were two letters, _oo_; e.g., _tenxó_ or _gacux[vo]_.[44] If the signs we have just shown are over the letter _u_, it is pronounced long as if there were two letters, _uu_; e.g., _taifú_ or _aia[vu]_. When the sign ~ is over the vowel, the sign should be pronounced like an _n_, not strongly but swiftly (_cursim_) and softly (_leniter_); e.g., _vãga_.[45] _Qe_ and _Qi_ are written without _u_, because when _u_ follows _q_ or _c_ both letters are pronounced as a _sinalepha_;[46] e.g., _quódai_ or _quainin_. When _u_ follows _g_ and immediately after the _u_ is the letter _e_ or _i_, it should be pronounced as in the Spanish word _guenin_; but if the letter _e_ or _i_ follows _g_ immediately without the _u_, it should be pronounced as in the Italian word _giorno_; e.g., _xitãgi_. The letter _z_ is pronounced with the same strength as in the Spanish word _zumbar_; e.g., _mizu_. But if there are two _zz_ then they are pronounced more strongly; _e.g._, _mizzu_. When there are two _tt_, _xx_, _zz_, _qq_, _cq_, _ij_, or _pp_[47] it is important to persist in order to obtain perfect pronunciation and the exact value of the word; for _mizu_ means 'honey' and _mizzu_ means 'water.' Therefore, if the words are said with the same strength or the same gentleness they can mean either 'water' or 'honey.' When _ch_ comes before a vowel it is pronounced as in the Spanish _chimera_; e.g., _fochó_. {109} But if _nh_ comes before a vowel it is pronounced as in the Spanish _maña_; e.g., _nhuva_. The letter _f_ is pronounced in various regions of Japan as it is in Latin. In others it is pronounced as if it were an imperfect _h_. For both pronunciations the lips and the mouth should be nearly, but not completely, closed. When _tç_ is in a word (and it appears quite frequently) the student should pray that God have mercy on his pronunciation because the word is very difficult, and its pronunciation is not to be found (5 in any other language. It is not truly pronounced _tç_, nor as _s_, nor as _c_ alone, but rather by striking the tongue violently against the teeth in order to pronounce both _t_ and _ç_, but with more _ç_ than _t_ seeming to be sounded; e.g., _tçutçumu_. The letter _r_ is said smoothly and softly everywhere it is found, either at the beginning or in the middle of a word; e.g., _ranguió_, or _cutabiruru_. _Ya_, _ye_, _yo_, and _yu_ are pronounced as in Spanish.[48] When words ending in _i_ or _u_ are pronounced by the Japanese, the last letter is almost not heard by the student. For instance, if he hears _gozaru_ he will think he hears _gozar_, if he hears _fitotçu_ he will believe he hears only _fitotç_, and when he hears _axi no fara_ he will perceive only _ax no fara_. When a word ending in a vowel is followed immediately by a consonant, particularly _b_ or _s_,[49] between that vowel and consonant is pronounced the letter _n_, not perfectly, but softly; e.g., _sonõ gotoqu._ I have given special care to the accenting of words.[50] This has been done so that the signs that have been placed correctly over the accented letter will allow the listener to understand the meaning of the words and the sentences of the speaker. For instance, _qèixèi_ has the accent on both _èè_; _fìbicàxi_ has it on the first _i_ and on the a.[51] This same {110} arrangement will be respected in the dictionary, with the accent being written with the same degree of correctness as is able to be achieved with great attention. If at times I have made mistakes, I am prepared to correct them immediately. Concerning what has been explained too briefly or left out of this grammar and the dictionary, learned people will be able to do that when they add a third dictionary and a third grammar, since it is easy to supply this material. Because I wish neither to be criticized by the Head of our Order (_pater familias_) and the Lord our God, nor do I wish this knowledge to be wrapped up in a handkerchief;[52] I want by these two works to help and to cooperate in the salvation of the Japanese not only by preaching but also by offering to the preachers, if I can, the tools of the language and chiefly the method by which they might better learn the Japanese language, a task made very difficult by the persecutions in Japan. Farewell, Reader, and be of good cheer. Madrid, 30 August 1631. * * * * * {111} (6 IN THIS GRAMMAR WE HAVE FOR THE MOST PART OBSERVED THE ARRANGEMENT WHICH ANTONIUS NEBRISSENSIS AND OTHERS HAVE FOLLOWED IN LATIN FOR THE TREATMENT OF SENTENCES, NAMELY NOUNS, PRONOUNS, ETC. _The Noun--Its Declension and Its Gender_ In the Japanese language there are no case declensions as there are in Latin; but there are certain particles, which when suffixed to nouns, determine the differences between the cases for both common and proper nouns. The particles which form the nominative are five; _va_, _ga_, _cara_, _no_, and _iori_. The particle _va_ is used when we want to give a sort of reduplicative[53] and specific turn to the person or thing that is signified by such a noun. It indicates either the first, second, or third person; e.g., _Vatacuxi va mairanu_ 'I, or those related to me, will not come.' The particle _no_ is suffixed to the second and third person, especially if they are inferior in rank or in a sentence where there is a relative construction which does not indicate a transitive action; e.g., _sonata no móxita coto_ 'that which you said.' The particle _no_ is also used when some indefinite form is used; e.g., _iie no aru ca miió_ [... _miio_] 'see if there are houses.' The particle _ga_ is used usually for the first and third persons of inferior status as well as for the second person when he is the most lowly or is to be humiliated; e.g., _Pedro ga qita_ 'Peter came.' This particle is also used to indicate something indefinite, as has been said of the particle _no_; e.g., _coco ni va iie ga nai ca?_ 'aren't the houses here?' It is also used in sentences that have a relative construction which does not indicate a transitive action. If the reference is to something of inferior or humble status the particle _ga_ is also used; e.g., _soregaxi ga caita fumi_ 'the letter which I wrote,' _sochi ga iúta coto_ 'what you said.' The particles _cara_ and _iori_ are used to form the {112} nominative case when the sentence shows a transitive action, especially if the sentence contains a relative construction; e.g., _Deus iori cudasareta gracia_ 'the mercy which God gave,' _tono cara core vo vôxe tçuqerareta_ 'the Lord taught this.' Sometimes the words are in the nominative case without any particle; e.g., _Pedro Ioaõ vo iobareta_ 'Peter called (7 John.' There are two particles for the genitive; i.e., _no_ and _ga_. The particle _no_ is used for all persons of superior rank; e.g., _Padre no võ qiru mono_ 'the priest's clothes, or habit.' The particle _ga_ is used for people of inferior rank; e.g., _Pedro ga fumi_ 'Peter's letter,' _sochi ga mono_ 'your thing,' _are ga cane_ 'your money,' _tono va iocu ga fucai fito gia_ 'the Lord is of great cupidity, that is to say he is very eager.' Sometimes the particle _to_ is suffixed to the genitive; e.g., _Pedro no to degozaru_ 'it belongs to Peter.' But since this is not a perfect way of speaking, it is better not to use it. I have cited it so that if you hear it you will understand. When two nouns are joined to form a single word, the one which is like an adjective does not require the genitive particle; e.g., _cocuxu_ 'the Lord of the kingdom.' According to the ordinary rule we should say _cocu no xu_. This way of forming the genitive is very common in Japanese; e.g., _Maria coto_ 'Mary's thing.' Two particles form the dative; i.e., _ni_ and _ie_. For example, _Pedro ni móxita_ 'I told Peter,' _Padre ie ague maraxita_ 'I gave, or offered, it to the priest.' There are five particles which form the accusative case; i.e., _vo_, _voba_, _va_, _ie_, and _ga_. The first, _vo_, is the most used; e.g., _Pedro vo iobe_ 'call Peter.' _Va_ is used when one wishes to express in particular a noun in the accusative; e.g., _niffon guchi va xiranu_[54] 'I don't know Japanese.' The ending _voba_ is the same as _vo va_, changing the second _v_ to _b_ they use it as _va_; e.g., _fune voba nori sutete; cane bacari tori maraxita_ 'abandoning ship, I took only money, or gold, with me.' _Ie_ is used to indicate the place to which one goes; e.g., _Roma ie mairó_ 'I go to Rome.' _Ga_ is used for nouns which indicate non-living or humble things; e.g., _are ie gozare, mono ga móxitai_ 'go there! I have something to tell you.' The accusative is also formed without any particle, as has {113} been shown in the example second before last, where the second accusative is without a particle. The vocative is formed with the particle _icani_. It is not suffixed to words as are the other particles but it is prefixed instead; e.g., _icani qimi core vo goronjerarei_ 'look at this, My Lord.'[55] Usually, however, the vocative is formed without any particle; e.g., _Padre sama_ (8 _qicaxerareio_ 'listen, Reverend Father.' There are three particles for the ablative; i.e., _iori_, _cara_, and _ni_. The third indicates the place in which; e.g., _iglesia ni gozaru_ 'he is in church.' Sometimes _ni_ is used after _no_; e.g., _sonata no ni xi aru ca?_ 'are you going to make it yours, or take it for yours?' But this seems much more a dative than an ablative. The particles _cara_ and _iori_ are more common in the formation of the ablative; e.g., _Madrid cara maitta_ 'I came from Madrid,' _Pedro iori corosareta_ 'he was killed by Peter.' There are four particles used to form the plural. They are placed immediately after the noun they pluralize and before the particles which indicate case. These four particles are _tachi_, _xu_, _domo_, and _ra_. The first, _tachi_, forms the plural of those noble things which one wishes to honor; e.g., _tono tachi_ 'lords.' The particle _xu_ forms the plural for noble things but not those of the highest rank; e.g., _samurai xu_ 'nobles (_nobiles_), but not lords (_domini_).' The particle _domo_ is suffixed to words which indicate humble things, either abstract, animate, or inanimate; e.g., _fiacuxó domo_ 'farmer,' _ixi domo_ 'stones,' _mma domo_ 'horses.' The particle _ra_ forms the plural of nouns which indicate very low things which are to be despised; e.g., _Iudeo ra_ 'Jews.'[56] The case particles which are required by the sentence are placed after the pluralizing particles; e.g., _tono tachi no coto domo vo varú iú na_ 'don't speak badly about the Lords' affairs.' There are some words that are plural in themselves; e.g., _tomo gara_ means 'men,' _Nan ban mono_ 'European things,' _Nan ban mono vo fomuru na_ 'don't praise European things.' The particle _icani_, which as has been indicated above forms the vocative, is not placed after but always before the pronouns which are {114} made plural, while the particles which form the plural are placed after; e.g., _icani Padre tachi vo qiqi nasare io_ 'listen to the priests.' But two of the four particles which form the plural, _domo_ and _ra_, are with certain words singular. _Varera_ and _midomo_ mean 'I.' Sometimes both are found together in the singular; e.g., _midomora_ 'I,' _midomora ga_ 'my, or mine.' The particles _domo_ and _ra_ are also (9 suffixed to the singular when one wishes to humiliate the thing mentioned; e.g., _hara domo ga itai_ 'I have a stomach ache,' _asu domo va aru mai_ 'tomorrow will not come,' _asu ra va naró mode_ 'tomorrow will perhaps not come.' The particle _va_ is suffixed to singular and plural nouns which already have a particle; e.g., _coco ie va mairanu_ 'he will not come here,' _coco cara va denu_ 'he did not go out from here,' _coco ni va aru mai_ 'he will not enter here.' Sometimes _va_ replaces the particles of the declension; e.g., _fune de saie ióió tçuita ni, cachi va nacanaca naru mai_ (119v) 'I arrived with such difficulty by ship: I would undoubtedly never have arrived had I come by foot, or on foot.'[57] The particle _va_ here replaces _cara_. Japanese does not have the genders feminine, masculine, and neuter as Latin does. There are, however, certain nouns which are feminine or masculine because of their meaning. Other nouns are common to both these genders. For things which do not have a proper gender _vo_ is placed before masculine nouns and _me_ before feminine; e.g., _voivo_ means 'male fish' and _meivo_ 'female fish,' _vojica_ means 'roe-buck,' _melica_ [_mejica_] 'roe-doe,'[58] _coma_ means 'horse,' _zoiacu_ 'mare,' _xô_ means 'male hawk,' _dai_ 'female hawk,' _cotoi_ means 'bull,' _meuxi_ 'cow,' _votoco_ means 'man,' _vonago_, _nhóbó_, or _vonna_ 'woman.' All these words are placed in the dictionary as they come to mind. The nominal adjectives have no gender or declension but make use of the same particles as the nouns. There are however many and diverse adjectives. Certain ones end in _ai_ others in _oi_, _ei_, _ui_ and _ij_. There are other, more proper adjectives, which are formed by adding _no_ to nouns. When the first five types of adjectives are placed before nouns they are then properly adjectives and do not in any way alter the composition of {115} the sentence. But when they are placed after nouns they become more like verbs and are in fact conjugated like them; e.g., _tacai iama_ 'a high mountain,' _xiguei ideiri_ 'frequent comings and goings,' _caxicoi_ (10 _fito_ 'a wise man,' _cavaij mono_ 'a wretched thing,' _aiaui coto_ 'a dangerous thing,' _umare tçuqi no cuchi_ 'one's natural, or mother tongue.' There are also adjectives ending in _na_ which, when they are placed before nouns, do not alter the construction; e.g., _qirei na coto_ 'a clean thing.' All the adjectives, except those ending in _no_, change their form in some way when they occur before verbs. Those that end in _ai_ change to _ó_; e.g., _cono iama va tacó gozaru_ 'this mountain is lofty.' Those ending in _ei_ change to _eô_; e.g., _cono iama va xigueô gozaru_ 'these mountains are dense.' Those ending in _oi_ change to _ô_; e.g., _caxicô gozaru_ 'he is wise.' Those ending in _ui_ change to _ú_; e.g., _xei no ficú gozaru_ 'he is small in stature.' Those ending in _ii_ [_ij_] change to _iú_; e.g., _caiú gozaru_ 'it itches.'[59] Among those adjectives ending in _ij_ there are many which come from verbs; e.g., _nozomi,u_ means 'to wish,' and from it comes _nozomaxij_ 'which is to be wished for.' Other adjectives come from nouns; e.g., _varambe_ means 'a child, or infant,' and from this comes _varamberaxij_ which means 'childish.' Other examples may be found in the dictionary. Adjectives which end in _na_ change the _na_ to _ni_ when they are placed before verbs; e.g., _fuxin ni zonzuru_ 'I think it doubtful.' The adjectives that end in _no_ sometimes change the _no_ to _na_; e.g., _bechi no fito_ changes to _bechi na fito_ 'a different man.' Sometimes when it is followed by a verb the _na_ changes to a _ni_; e.g., _bechi ni gozaru_ 'it is different.' However, the meaning remains the same whether the word ends in _na_ or _no_; e.g., _bechi no fito no cuhi cara qiita_ [... _cuchi_ ...] is the same as _bechi na fito no cuchi cara qiita_ 'I heard it from the mouth of a different person.'[60] The only difference in these forms is that when the word ends in _no_ no change occurs as a consequence of what follows. But, as has been said, those adjectives that end in _na_ change to _ni_ when they come before a verb. If a substantive verb follows an adjective, it is an elegant statement; e.g., _cono iami va tacó gozaru_ 'this mountain is high.' But if this kind of verb does not follow, the sense {116} is not altered since the adjective is used as a substantive verb. But this is not used before superiors. To them we will not say _cono iama va tacai_ but rather _cono iama va tacó gozaru_. The same is true for the other adjectives. Adjectives usually end in _i_ but infrequently these adjectives change to _xi_ or to _qu_. _Ioi_, which means 'good,' changes to _ioqu_, or _ioxi_; e.g., _ioqu dancó xite_, which has the meaning of 'offering good (11 council.'[61] There are innumerable nouns which become adjectives if _na_ is suffixed to them; e.g., _afo_ means 'ignorance' and from it comes the word _afo na_ which means 'ignorant,' _jiiu_ means 'liberty' and _jiiu na_ means 'which is free.' Other examples are offered by the dictionary. There are certain abstract nouns which become adjectives when they precede a vocable (_vocabulis_) with the meaning of 'man'; e.g., _jifi_ means 'pity,' but when the word _jin_ is placed after it, it becomes _jifijin_ 'a pitiable person.' _Fin_ means 'poverty,' but when the word _nin_ is suffixed to it, it becomes _finnin_ 'a poor person.' In the same way, when one suffixes _ja_ to _fin_, it makes _finja_, which also means 'a poor person.' The word _ban_ means 'watch,' but if the word _ja_ is added to it, it becomes _banja_ 'a careful person.' Many other examples can be found in the dictionary. There are in Japanese certain words which are borrowed from Chinese, called _cobita_[62] or _coie_, and are written together to form by their union a noun and an adjective. Thus, _ten_ mean 'heaven,' _xu_ means 'lord,' and _tenxu_ means 'lord of heaven.' The preterit of verbs (which will be taken up in their place) seem to have the same strength and meaning as adjectives when they are used before nouns; e.g., _iogoreta te_ 'dirty hands,' where _iogoreta_ is the preterit of the verb _iogore,uru_ 'I became dirty.' _Caita qió_ means 'a written book' and _caita_ is the preterit of the verb _caqi,u_ I write.' The abstract (_abstracta_), or root from which the verb is formed, is itself a noun which signifies the action of the verb in the abstract; e.g., {117} _facari_ means 'measure,' and it comes from the verb _facari,u_ 'I measure' while _fajime_ means 'beginning,' and comes from the verb _fajime,uru_ 'I begin.' Others will be found in the dictionary. The prepositional particle _mono_, when placed before an abstract or verbal noun, forms a noun which indicates the subject who does the action; e.g., _mono_ before _caqi_ makes _monocaqi_ 'one who writes.' This same particle when placed after a root forms a noun which indicates the effect of an action; e.g., _caqimono_ 'a writing.' The particle _goto_ placed after these same roots forms a noun (12 which means a thing which is worthy of the action indicated by the verb; e.g., _mi_ is the root of the verb _mi,uru_ 'I see,' and _migoto_ is 'a visible thing, or a thing worthy of being seen'; while _qiqi_ is the root of the verb _qiqi,u_ 'I hear,' and _qiqigoto_ means 'a thing which can be heard, or is worthy of being heard.' If we place certain substantive nouns after certain of the verbal nouns about which we have been speaking, there is formed a noun which has the meaning of the action; e.g., _foxi_ is the root of the verb _foxi,u_ 'to dry under the sun'; but, if _ivo_ 'fish' is placed after it, the meaning of the expression _foxiivo_ becomes 'fish dried in the sun.' When the particle _dógu_ 'instrument' is placed after the root of a verb it forms a noun meaning the cause or instrument of the action indicated by the verb; e.g., _varaidógu_ 'the cause, or instrument of ridicule,' _caqidógu_ 'a writing instrument, or an instrument for writing.' The particle _me_ when suffixed to a verb forms a noun which indicates the terminus of the action; e.g., _avaxe_ is the root of the verb _avaxe,uru_ 'to unite or join two things,' and _avaxeme_ means 'junction.' The same is true of other forms. An abstract noun can be formed from those adjectives ending in _i_ if the _i_ is changed to _sa_; e.g., _nagai_ means 'is long,' and _nagasa_ means 'length.' The adjectives ending in _na_ change the _na_ to _sa_ in order to form abstract nouns; e.g., _aqiraca na_ which means 'clear' will become _aqiracasa_ 'clarity.' Sometimes from two nouns taken together, often with a change in the first or last letter, there is formed a third noun, which is quasi-descriptive (_quasi connotativus_), almost like an adjective or noun with a {118} genitive; e.g., from _qi_ 'wood' and _fotoqe_ 'idol' there results _qibotoqe_ 'wooden idol,' with the _f_ changed to _p_ [_b_]. But if the prefixed noun ends in _e_, this _e_ is changed to _a_ in the attributive of the compound; e.g., _tçumasaqi_ 'the tip of the nail,' _canacugui_ 'iron nails.' A word which is placed second in these compounds may change its first letter; if it is _f_ it becomes _b_ or _p_, if it is _s_ it becomes _z_, if it is _c_ it becomes _g_, if it is _tç_ it becomes _zz_, if it is _x_ it becomes _j_; e.g., _caribune_, _buppô_, (13 _nigorizaqe_, _soragoto_, _qizzumari_, and _sorajeimon_. See the dictionary. _Pronouns_ In the Japanese language there are no derivative pronouns, such as _meus,a,um_, etc.; but the primitive pronouns, such as _mei_, _tui_, etc., are used. These primitive forms do not have declensions for case, but rather use the particles which are common to both nouns and pronouns. Certain particles (about which we will speak later) when added to a word indicate honor and thereby form a pronoun or substitute for it in such circumstances as pronouns would normally be used. Thus, if I say _von fumi_, when speaking to someone else, it is immediately understood that I am speaking about his letter and not mine; for if I were speaking about mine I would not say _von fumi_ but only _fumi_, since the particle _von_, which indicates honor, signifies 'your letter.' This is also true for such particles as _mi_ which also attributes honor to the noun to which it is joined. _First Person Pronouns--Ego, etc._[63] There are eight particles which signify 'I, mine, to me, etc.' They are _vatacuxi_, _soregaxi_, _vare_, _mi_, _varera_, _midomo_, _midomora_, _vare_.[64] The first four indicate a degree of superiority on the part of those who use them. The others are more humble. Women use three other particles _mizzucara_, _varava_, and _vagami_ which are not used by men. The people in the countryside use two others, _vara_ [_vora_] and _vorara_, while priests {119} when speaking of themselves use _gusô_, that is to say 'I, a worthless man of the cloth,' and old men when speaking of themselves use _guró_, 'I, a worthless and despicable old man.' The king (_rex_) says _chin_ or _maru_ which means 'I, the King.' (14 To form the plural of these pronouns the pluralizing particles _domo_ or _ra_ are added; e.g., _midomo ga maitta toqi_ 'when we went.' To indicate the difference between the cases, the endings about which we have spoken are suffixed. _Second Person Pronouns--Tu, tui, tibi, etc._[65] There are many particles that form the second person pronoun. They are differentiated to indicate those persons deserving no honor and respect, those deserving some, moderate, great, or maximal honor and respect. In speaking to inferiors there are three particles used for 'you'; _vare_, _vonore_, and _sochi_. If _me_ or _mega_ is added as in _vareme_ or _varemega_ it means we very much despise the person being spoken to. If we speak to people who are on our own level, or just a little inferior, we use one of the three particles _sonata_, _sonof[vo]_, or _varesama_. If we speak to a superior person, or someone on an equal level but with whom we must speak elegantly, we use one of the seven particles _conata_, _qixo_, _qifó_, _gofen_, _qiden_, _conatasama_, and _sonatasama_. When speaking to persons of high rank, if we place the name of their office before _sama_, it serves as a pronoun; e.g., _Padresama gozare_ 'will the Father come.' _Conata_, _cochi_, and _conof[vo]_ mean 'I, mine,' but in the distributive sense of 'from me, or what concerns me.' In the same way _sochi_, _sonofó_, and _sonata_ mean 'you, from you, or what concerns you.' The plurals are formed by adding the particles listed above to the pronouns according to the different degrees of honor. _Vonore domo_, _varera_, and _sochira_ mean 'you' when speaking to inferiors. _Vare tachi_ and _sonata domo_ mean 'you' with persons of the same rank. _Qifó tachi_, _vocatagata_, and _vono vono_ mean 'you' to persons requiring honor. The declension of these honorable expressions follows the declension (15 of common particles. {120} _Third Person Pronouns--Ille, illa, illud_[66] The two particles _care care_ and _are are_ mean 'this (_ille, illa, illud_)' when speaking of inferior things.[67] There are four particles; _aitçu_, _aitçume_, _areme_, and _caitçume_ which mean 'this' when one wants to show disrespect for the things being spoken about. This idea is emphasized if one adds _ga_ to those forms that end in _me_; e.g., _aitçuga_ and _aitçumega_ 'this humble man.' _Cono_ means 'this (_hic, haec, hoc_),' _sono_ means 'that (_iste, ista, istud_),' and _ano_ means 'that (_ille, illa, illud_).' These words require a noun after them; e.g., _cono fito_ 'this man' with _cono mono_ having the same meaning but not being an honorific expression. _Sono coto_ means 'that thing,' _ano fito_ 'that person,' _conata_ or _conofó_ 'here,' _sonata_ or _sonofó_ 'there,' and _anofó_ 'there, yonder.' _Core_ means 'this (_hic_),' _sore_ 'that (_istud_),' and _are_ 'that (_illud_).' These forms are in the neuter gender and are not followed by nouns. Their plurals are _corera_, _sorera_, and _arera_, while the others follow the common rules. _Cano_ means 'that which we have mentioned'; e.g., _cano fito_ 'that person.' The pronoun 'a certain (_quidam_)' is made with the particle _aru_; e.g., _aru fito_ 'a certain person,' _aru tocoro ni_ 'in a certain place.' The pronoun 'each (_unusquisque_)' is formed with the particles _men men_ and _sore sore_. The pronoun 'each and every (_universi & singuli_)' is formed with _tare mo mina_. The pronoun 'anyone (_quicumque_)' is formed with _tare nite mo_, _tare nite mo are_, and _tare nari tomo_. The particle _tare mo_, when placed before a negative, forms the pronoun 'no one, or nobody'; e.g., _tare mo mairananda_ 'nobody went.' The particle _nani taru coto nari tomo_ means 'whatever happens, or whichever thing happens.' The particle _mei mei_ means 'to each, or everyone in particular.' The particle _goto_ makes the distributive pronoun meaning 'every.' This form is used after vocables which are proper to the Japanese language; i.e., _iomi_. The same results are achieved by placing the (16 particle _mai_ before vocables which come from the Chinese language; i.e., {121} _coie_. For example, _fi_ means 'day,' and _figoto ni_ means 'daily.' _Nen_ is a Japanese borrowing from a Chinese word meaning 'year,' and _mainen_ means 'every year, or all year.' The same result is obtained by the repetition of the noun; e.g., _fito_ means 'person,' and _fitibito_ means 'all the people, or many people,' _fi_ means 'day,' and _fibi ni_ means 'all of the days, or every day.' The indefinite pronoun 'some (_aliqui_)' is formed with _niiotte_; e.g., _toqi niiotte_ 'some times,' _fito niiotte_ 'some men.' The pronoun 'the same (_idem_)' is formed with _vonaji_; e.g., _vonaji tocoro cara_ 'from the same place.' The particle _dôjen_ means the same thing but in the neuter ; e.g., _dôjen degozaru_ 'it is the same.' This word is used in reply to some one who has congratulated you, etc. The pronoun 'himself (_ipse_)' is formed with the particles _nuxi_, _sono mi_, and _vaga_. The particle _vareto mi_ forms the pronoun 'himself (_ipsemet_)'; e.g., _vareto mi ni ata vo nasu_ (96) 'he brings harm to himself,' _mi vo vasurete; ta vo tasuquru_ 'he forgets himself and saves others.' The particle _vatacuxi_ means 'a thing which belongs to oneself (_re propria_)'; e.g., _vatacuxi no coto_ 'ones own thing,' _vatacuxi ni ivareta_ 'he spoke for himself.' The pronoun 'somebody (_aliquis_)' is made with the particles _tare zo_ and _taso_; e.g., _tare zo maittaraba_ 'if somebody were to come,' _taso sacana ga aru ca tói ni iqe_ [... _toi_ ...] 'let someone go and ask if there is food.' The neuter pronoun 'something (_aliquid_)' is formed with the particles _nan zo_ and _nanica_; e.g., _nan zo ga araba cuvózu_ 'I would eat if there were something,' _ima faia te ga jiiú ni gozaru fodo ni nanica caqi maraxô_ 'I would write something if I were to have my hands free, or untied.' The interrogative 'who (_quis_)' is translated with the three particles _tare_, _taga_, and _taso_. The particles _taga_ or _tare no_ form the genitive; e.g., _taga mono ca_ 'whose thing is this.' When someone comes to the door and knocks, he says _mono mó_.[68] To this one responds _taso_, _taga_, or _tare_ 'who is it?' _Nani_ means 'what (_quid_)'; e.g., _nani vo suru_ (17 _ca_ or _nani goto vo suru ca?_ 'what are you doing?' _nani ni sore vo totte iqu ca?_ 'for what reason do you bring this to me?' {122} _Relative Pronouns_ The relative pronoun is formed by placing the noun, in connection with which there is a relative (_relativum_), after the verb; e.g., _ten ni maximasu varera ga von voia_ 'Our Father who is in Heaven,' _deta tocoro va_ 'the place from which he came out,' _te ni sumi no tçuita fito_ (88) 'a man to whose hands ink is adhering.' If the sentence (_oratio_) requires a nominative before the verb it must be formed with one of the particles which indicate the nominative; _ga_, _no_, or _iori_. For example, _vatacuxi ga caita fumi_ 'the letter which I wrote,' _conata no vôxerareta coto_ 'the thing which Your Lordship says.' The third particle, _iori_, is used when there is movement in the sentence; e.g., _Deus iori ataie cudasareta gracia_ 'the grace which God provided, or gave,' _ano tocoro ni amata no qió atta vo torareta_ (87v.) 'he brought what many books there were in that place.' When two sentences containing a relation come together the first is placed second by general rule,[69] and the second uses either a past, present, or future particle according to what is required by the sense of the sentence; e.g., _qesa Oracio vo móxita qió ga tçucuie no uie ni aru vo motte coi_ 'bring the book which is on the desk (_sedila_) at which I said my prayers this morning.' In this sentence _qió ga_, which is the first relative, comes after the verb _móxita_; and the _vo_ which stands for the second relative comes after the verb _aru_. When we want to be more specific about that of which we are speaking we place the particle _tocoro no_ between the thing itself and the verb; e.g., _vare to dôxin xita tocoro no mono domo va mina buguen ni natta_ 'all those who agreed with me became rich.' Sometimes the relative, because of the difficulty in understanding it, is expressed by expositions (_per exponentes_). Thus, in place of _ima corosareta Pedro no co va sonata no chijn gia_ which means 'the son of Peter who has just been killed was your friend,' we say _ima Pedro corosareta sono co va sonata no chijn de gozaru_. Sometimes they join two particles, as determined by the case, and form a kind of relative pronoun which is placed before the relative; e.g., _sono tocoro de no dancó_ 'the consultation at that place,' (18 _Marsella ie no fune_ 'the ship to Marseille,' _maire to no móxi goto dearu_ [ ... _gia_] 'it is said that I should go.' {123} _Mairu mai to no dancó ni qivamatta_ 'it was resolved that he not go,' _maitte nochi no dancó_ 'the consultation he arrived after,' _varambe cara no catagui_ 'a custom from youth,' _xô tame no chôgui gia_ (22) 'this is the plan (_ars_) according to which it will be done,' _anofito no vo toró_ 'I shall take what belongs to that man.' This ends the note on relative pronouns. _The Formation of the Verb and Its Conjugation_[70] The verbs in Japanese have no number or person. These distinctions are indicated instead by the particles used in the formation of the plurals and in the declensions. There are three affirmative conjugations and the same number of negative. The root (_radix_) of the verb does not by itself indicate tense. For this reason it is necessary to conjugate the verb in order to show the tenses. All the verbs of the first conjugation[71] end in e. Those ending in _gi_ or _ji_, together with _xi_ and _maraxi_, although they end in _i_, are also in the first conjugation. If the root ends in _de_ or _gi_, the present form is made by changing them to _zzuru_; e.g., _fagi_ forms its present in _fazzuru_ and means 'to blush,' _de_ becomes _zzuru_ and means 'to leave.' If the root ends in _je_ or _ji_ it changes in the present to _zuru_; e.g., _maje:mazuru_ 'to mix,' _anji:anzuru_ 'to consider.' If they end in _xe_ they change to _suru_; e.g., _avaxe:avasuru_ 'to join.' _Xi_ and _maraxi_, which (as we have said) are in the first conjugation,[72] change _xi_ to _suru_; e.g., _xi:suru_ 'to do,' _maraxi:marasuru_ which also means 'to do.' If the root ends in _te_ it changes to _tçuru_; e.g., _sodate:sodatçuru_ 'to nourish, or support.' The remaining roots which end in _e_ change, in their separate ways, the _e_ to _uru_; e.g., _ague:aguru_ 'to offer,' _nigue:niguru_ 'to run away.' There are certain verbal preterits which have present tense meanings. They are those which are passive in form but active in (19 meaning; e.g., _cocoroieta_ 'to understand,' _qicoieta_ 'to hear,' _voboieta_ 'to remember,' _qiqiieta_ 'to understand,' _zonjita_ 'to know,' and there may {124} be many others. The verbs which follow belong to the first conjugation even though their roots do not end as previously stated.[73] If the present tense of these forms does not change the _i_ to _uru_ they are exceptional; e.g., _abi,uru_ 'to wash oneself,' _fotobi,uru_ 'to become soft,' _focorobi,uru_ 'to become unstitched,' _cabi_ [_cabi,uru_] 'to be moldy,'[74] _sabi_ [_sabi,uru_] 'to rust,' _deqi_ [_deqi,uru_] 'to be finished, or ended,' _cuchi:cutçuru_ 'to rot,' _michi:mitçuru_ 'to be filled in by the sea,' _ini,uru_ 'to leave,' _nobi:nobiru_ or _noburu_ 'to be spread out,' _tçuqi,uru_ 'to be used,' _vori:uru_ 'to descend from above,' _xij:xijru_[75] 'to invite to dine, by compulsion,' _ni:niru_ 'to resemble,' _mochij:mochiiuru_ 'to evaluate,' _ni:niru_ 'to cook,' _mi:miru_ 'to look at,' _cori,uru_ 'to correct,' _vochi:votçuru_ 'to fall,' _i:iru_ 'to exist, or be present,' _fugui,uru_ 'to pass, as time passes,' _vabi,uru_ 'to beg for mercy,' _carabi,uru_ 'to become dry,' _iqi:iquru_ 'to live,' _fi:firu_ 'to become dry,' _qi:quru_ 'to come,' _qi:qiru_ 'to dress oneself,' _voqi,uru_ 'to get out of bed.' The following four verbs have irregular, as well as regular, present tenses;[76] _ataie_ has _atóru_ 'to give,' _vaqimaie_ has _vaqim[vo]ru_ 'to discriminate,' _tonaie_ has _tonóru_ 'to bless,' _sonaie_ has _sonóru_ 'to place in a high position.' _The Preterit, Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect_ In Japanese there is no imperfect. In its place the perfect is used. The perfect is formed in two ways. The first is by suffixing _ta_ to the root of a verb ; e.g., _agueta_ is the preterit of the verb _ague,uru_ 'to offer.' The second is by suffixing _te_ to the root and to that adding _gozari,u_ or _ari,u_ which is then conjugated in the present or the preterit of the second conjugation; e.g., _aguete gozaru_ or _aguete gozatta_, or _aguete aru_ or _aguete atta_ 'offered, or had offered.' If the particle _fáia_ [_faia_] is placed before the verb the expression is strengthened; e.g., (20 _fáia aguete gozatta_ [_faia_ ...] 'I had already offered it.' When the verb _ari,u_ is suffixed to the perfect it is not as elegant a way of speaking as {125} when _gozari,u_ is used. Therefore when speaking one must be careful about what one says, or in front of whom one speaks, so as to give each person the honor he deserves. _The Future of the First Conjugation_ If the root of the verb ends in _te_ this syllable is changed to _teô_ or _chô_ to form the future; e.g., _tate,uru_ will become _tateô_ or _tachô_ 'I shall build.'[77] If the root ends in _ji_ the future is formed by changing _ji_ to _jô_; e.g., _xenji_ becomes _xenjô_ 'I shall prepare, or brew, the medicine.' If the root ends in _xe_ [_xi_] it changes to _xô_; e.g., _xi_ becomes _xô_, and _maraxi_ becomes _maraxô_ 'I shall do.' If it ends in _ie_ it is changed to _io_ [_iô_]; e.g., _voxiie_ becomes _voxiio_ [_vaxiiô_] 'I shall teach.' The remaining roots ending in _e_ suffix the particles _ô_, _ôzu_, or _ôzuru_; e.g., _agueô_, _agueôzu_, or _agueôzuru_ 'I shall offer.' These endings are used for the first conjugation[78] even when the roots end in _i_; e.g., _deqiôzu_ 'I shall be finished.' The future is also formed by taking the syllable _nu_ from the negative present (see below) and putting in its place the particle _baia_. Thus, by taking _nu_ away from _aguenu_ and putting in its place _baia_, we obtain _aguebaia_ 'I will offer.' For _minu_ if you take away the _nu_ and put in its place _baia_ it will become _mibaia_ 'I will see, or behold.' The future perfect is formed by suffixing the particles _te arózu_ or _tarózu_ to the root; e.g., _aguete arózu_ or _aguetarózu_ 'I shall already have offered.' The same results are obtained if _faia_ is placed before the simple future; e.g., _faia agueôzu_. (21 _The Imperative of the First Conjugation_ The imperative of the first conjugation is formed with the root of the verb alone, or with the addition of the particle _io_; e.g., _ague_ or _ague io_ 'offer!'[79] The future of the imperative is the future absolute _agueô_ or _agueôzu_. This is a more elegant and polite way of speaking than giving a command with the regular imperative. The imperative is also formed by taking the _nu_ from the negative present (see below) and {126} putting in its place the particle _sai_. Thus, if one takes the _nu_ from _aguenu_ and replaces it with _sai_ it becomes _ague sai_ which means 'offer!' If the particle _tai_ is placed after the root there is formed a kind of future or optative by which the wish of the speaker is expressed. It is therefore an elegant imperative; thus _mizzu fitotçu nomitai_ 'I would like to have a drink of water' is the same as 'give me some water to drink.' When a relative [clause] concerns a precept, rule, admonition, or prohibition the imperative is expressed word for word in whatever the conjugation, affirmative or negative; e.g., _Christiani naru na to no xógun no fatto ga aru_ [_Christian ni_ ...] 'it is the law of the Sh[=o]gan (_imperator_) that no one should become a Christian,' _Padre core vo coxiraie io to voxerareta niiotte_ [... _vôxerareta_ ...] 'because the Priest told me to do it.' _The Optative of the First Conjugation_ The optative, both present and future, is the present tense of the imperative with the particles _negavacu va_ or _avare_ placed before it and the particles _gana_ or _caxi_ placed after it. Sometimes it is formed by adding the particle _gana_ without any prefix; e.g., _negavacu va ague io caxi?_ or _avare aguei gana_[80] 'would that you were to offer?' _avare icanaru tengu, bangue mono nari tomo vare vo totte, fiie no iama ni noboxe io caxi!_ (15v)[81] 'Oh! if there were some one, either devil or soothsayer, who could make me ascend the mountain called Hie.' The particle _gana_ when it is placed after a noun indicates a wish for the thing specified by the noun; e.g., _saqe gana_ 'oh! sake'; and if (22 one is asked if he would like something to drink, the answer is _nani gana_ 'would that I had some.' The perfect of the optative is the second form of the future followed by the particle _mono vo!_; e.g., _niqueozu mono vo!_ [_nigueôzu_ ...] 'would that I had fled!' The same is achieved by _niguetaraba iocaró mono vo_. Sometimes they say only _niguetaró va_ or _niguete aró ni va iocaró mono vo_. {127} _The Subjunctive of the First Affirmative Conjugation_ The present tense of the subjunctive is formed by changing the _u_ in which the present indicative ends to _eba_; e.g., _aguru_ becomes _agureba_ 'since I offer.' It is also formed from the present by adding _ni_, _de_, _vo_, or _va_ to the particle _tocoro_ according to the case requirements of the verb that follows, with the first verb being controlled by the noun; e.g., _aru toqi Pedro chinsui xite iraruru tocoro ie fito ga qite_ (16v)[82] 'since a certain man came to the place where Peter was when he was drunk,' _nhóbó ni tachi vacarete iru tocoro ni_ (16v)[83] 'since they were separated and divorced,' _có aru tocoro ni_ 'since things are this way,' _ioso ie zzuru tocoro va fito ni corosareta_ (16v)[84] 'when he went outside, he was killed by someone,' _go misa vo asobaruru tocoro vo uchi coroita_ (121)[85] 'he killed him while he was celebrating mass.' This is a general rule which applies to all conjugations. The perfect and the pluperfect of the subjunctive are formed from these same tenses in the indicative with the addition of the particle _reba_; e.g., _agueta reba_ 'since he had offered.' It is also formed by taking away _gozaru_ from the preterit pluperfect and putting in its place _atta reba_ or _atta_; but, when _atta_ is used, the particles _ni_, _vo_, _va_, or _ie_ must be added according to the requirements of the following verb, just as with _tocoro_ in the present tenses; e.g., _aguete atta reba_ or _aguete atta ni_, _vo_, _va_, or _ie_ 'since I had already offered it.' The future of the subjunctive is formed by adding the particle _toqi_ to the future indicative; e.g., _agueô toqi_ 'since he would offer it later.' The pluperfect subjunctive, with all the expressions (_vox_) which signify that which comes after a completed action, is formed by (23 placing _cara_, _nochi_, or _igo_ after the pluperfect indicative, minus _gozaru_; {128} e.g., _aguete cara, nochi_, or _igo, mairó_ 'I shall leave after he has offered it.' This is like _aguetaró toki mairó_ 'I shall leave after he has already offered it.' _Agueôzuru ni_ or _agueôzuru tocoro ni_ means 'since he was already prepared to offer it.' _Agueôzuru coto no saqi ni_ means 'a little while before he offered it.' The present tense of the permissive subjunctive is formed in two ways. The first is by changing the _u_ of the present indicative to _edomo_; e.g., _aguredomo_ 'although I could offer it.' The preterit of the permissive subjunctive is formed by adding _redomo_ to the preterit indicative; e.g., _agueta redomo_ 'although he had offered it.' The future permissive is formed by adding _redomo_ to the second form of the future indicative; e.g., _agueôzu redomo_ 'although he would be able to offer it.' The second form of the permissive subjunctive is formed by adding the particle _tomo_ to the present indicative; e.g., _aguru tomo_ 'although he could offer it.' The particles _mamaio_ or _madeio_ may also be added to the present tense; e.g., _sore vo voxiiuru mamaio_ or _sore vo voxiiuru madeio_ 'although he could teach this.' The preterit of the second permissive is formed by suffixing _ritomo_ to the preterit indicative; e.g., _agueta ritomo_ 'although he had offered it.' The same meaning is achieved by adding the particles _mamaio_ or _madeio_ to the preterit indicative; e.g., _agueta mamaio_ or _agueta madeio_; or by adding _tote_ to the preterit subjunctive; e.g., _aguetareba tote_. The future permissive is formed by adding _tomo_ to the second form of the future indicative; e.g., _agueozu tomo_ [_agueôzu tomo_ 'although he would offer it']. It is also formed by adding _mamaio_ or _madeio_ to the same future form. If the particle _tatoi_ is placed before the forms of the permissive subjunctive great strength is added to the sentence; e.g., _tatoi vôxeraruru tomo_ 'even though you may state this.' The same meaning is obtained by removing the verbs _gozaru_ or _aru_ from the pluperfect indicative and replacing it with the particle _mo_; e.g., _aguete mo_ 'although he may offer it.' The same _mo_ when placed after the present indicative gives the same meaning; e.g., _doco de qiqi marasuru mo, sono sata va mósanu_ 'although he hears that everywhere, he does not pay any attention.' The same meaning is obtained by the sentences _ague mo xeio caxi?_, _aguete mo xô madeio_, and _nanto mo ague caxi?_ {129} [... _aguei caxi?_][86] 'although he offers.' _Aguru ni saxerarei_, (24 _agueta ni saxerarei_, or _agueo ni saxerarei_ [_agueô_ ...] have the meanings of 'although he could have offered, although he could offer, or although he would offer'; or one might say 'let us offer' or 'let us give.' _The Infinitive_ The present infinitive is formed by adding _coto_ or _to_ to the present indicative; e.g., _aguru coto_ or _aguru to_ 'to offer.' The preterit infinitive is formed by adding the same particles to the preterit indicative; e.g., _agueta coto_ or _agueta to_ 'to have offered.' The future infinitive is formed by adding the same particles to the future indicative; e.g., _agueô coto_ or _agueô to_ 'to be about to offer.' The same meaning is obtained by adding _ióni_ to the present, preterit, or future indicative; e.g., _nai nai guioi ni caqerareô ióni va vare mo zonzuru fitobito mo zonjita_ (22v) 'I think and others believed me to have been favored by you with many benefits,' _qeccu vare ni voxiie marasuru ióni gozaru_ (117v) 'he is truly able to teach me,' _agueta ióni gozaru_ 'he is said to have offered it.' To ask or answer a question the infinitive is often subordinate to the verb which follows; e.g., _nhóbógata ni vochita coto ga atta ca?_ 'did you fall into the sin of adultery with this woman? is this what happened?' etc. All the tenses of the infinitive are used in the same way. Sometimes the preterit infinitive is replaced by the pluperfect with _gozaru_ or _aru_ removed; e.g., _Deus no minori vo firomete iocaró_ 'it is good to spread the Gospel.' Sometimes the present or preterit indicative plus _ga_ replaces the present or preterit of the infinitive; e.g., _sore vo vôxeraruru ga varú gozaró_ 'it will be bad to say that,' _maitta ga maxi gia_ (21) 'it is better to have come, or it was better to come.' When the substantive verb follows the infinitive, the particle _coto_ is not required; e.g., _cosacazzuqi de va saqe vo nomu devanai_ (23) 'to drink sake from a small glass is not to drink sake,' _core coso caqu de gozare_ 'this we are able to say, or better, write,' _caqu de gozatte coso_ 'this is not the way for it to be written,' _sore va aguru devanai_ 'that is not to offer it.' Some of these examples are taken from other (25 conjugations but the general rule applies to all. The idea of the {130} infinitive is also obtained by the following means of expression; _ague va_, _aguredomo_ 'although I offered, or even if I made it so that it was offered.' Because this is a general rule for all the conjugations, they also say _qiqi va tçucamatçure domo gatten xenu_ 'although I have listened, or done everything necessary to hear; I still don't understand.' They also say _aguru vo motte_ 'by offering, or with the fact that he is to offer,' _aguru iori_ 'from the fact that he is to offer,' _aguru nitçuite_ 'about the fact that he is to offer.' The gerund in _Di_ is the present or future indicative followed by the particle _jibun_, or less frequently some other particle meaning 'time'; e.g., _aguru jibun_ 'the time for offering,' _agueô ni qivamatta_ 'he made the decision that it be offered,' _niguru jibun gia_ 'it is time to flee,' _corosareôzuru ni aisadamatte ar[vo]zu_ (13) 'it will have been decided that he will be killed, or will have to be killed.' The gerund in _Do_ is formed in two ways. The first is by adding the particles _ni_ or _tote_ to the present indicative; e.g., _aguruni_ or _agurutote iurusareta_ 'I was freed by it being offered.' The second way is by removing the verb _gozaru_ from the pluperfect; e.g., _aguete cutabireta_ 'I became tired by offering, or raising up,' that is to say, 'from the action of presenting, or raising up, I suffered the result of becoming tired.' There is also another elegant, and frequently used, way to form the gerund in _Do_. It is done by placing the root of the verb in front of another verb making a compound; e.g., _fiqi iosuru_ 'to approach, pulling.' The roots which are used in this way do not change with respect to their function. The gerund in _Do_ is also used to express purpose _taixó to xite_ 'since he was a commander (_dux_), or was fulfilling the function of a commander,' _von rei to xite_ 'giving thanks,' _r[vo]tai nomi ni xite_ 'since he was an old man,' _tçucai xite ivaruru_ 'he said it as a messenger.' The gerund in _Dum_ is formed by adding the particles _tame_ or _tote_ to the present or future indicative; e.g., _aguru tame_ or _agueo tote_ [_agueô tote_] 'in order to offer.' The same meaning is obtained by _aguru ni fatto ga aru_ 'there is a law about offering,' unless this should be considered a gerund in ni [_Di_]. The supine in _Tum_ is formed in two ways. The first is by adding _ni_ to the root. The second is by adding _tameni_ to the present indicative; {131} e.g., _tazzune ni maitta_ or _tazzunuru tameni maitta_ 'I came in order to obtain it.' The supine in _Tu_ is the root of the verb alone. To obtain the same meaning they also use _mósu ni voiobanu_ 'it is not necessary to (26 speak.' The present, preterit, and future participles are formed by adding the particles _fito_ or _mono_ to the indicative. When _fito_ is used the result is a more honorable way of speaking; e.g., _aguru fito_ or _aguru mono_ 'he who offers,' _agueta fito_ 'he who offered,' _agueô mono_ 'he who will offer,' _Buppôgacu suru tomogara ni voite va_ (73v) 'as for those who devote themselves to the study of the laws of idolatry,' _von vo xiru vo fito to va iúzo; von vo xiranu voba chicuxó to coso iie_ (96v). In this last sentence the _vo_ takes the place of the participle, and the sentence therefore means 'those who know kindness (_beneficia_) are correctly called men; those who do not know it are truly called beasts.' This is a general rule for all the conjugations and therefore the example contains a verb from the second conjugation. The participle is also made by adding _te_ ['hand'] to the root of the verb; e.g., _aguete_ 'one who offers.' _The First Negative Conjugation_ The negative root is formed by adding _zu_ to the affirmative root; e.g., _aguezu_. The present tense is formed with _nu_ instead of _zu_; e.g., _aguenu_ 'I do not offer.' This is a general rule no matter how the root ends. The only exceptions are _xi_ and _maraxi_ which form the negative present in _xenu_ and _maraxenu_ 'I do not do.' The roots that end in _ji_ change the _ji_ to _je_ and then suffix the particle _nu_ to the present; e.g., _zonji_ in the negative present becomes _zonienu_ [_zonjenu_] 'I do not know.' In some areas of Japan they form the negative by removing the final _u_ from the negative root and adding _ari,u_, which is then conjugated according to the required tense; e.g., _aguezaru_ 'I do not offer,' _aguezatta_ 'I did not offer,' _aguezatta reba_ 'since I did not offer.' They also say _aguezu xite_ 'by not offering.'[87] {132} The negative of the preterit is formed in like manner by adding the particle _nanda_ instead of _nu_; e.g., _aguenanda_ 'I did not offer,' _zonjenanda_ 'I did not know,' _vorinanda_ 'I did not descend.' The pluperfect is formed by changing the last _a_ of the preterit to _e_ and adding the verb _gozaru_ in the present and _gozatta_ in the preterit; e.g., _aguenande gozaru_ or _aguenande gozatta_ 'I have not offered.' It is also formed by adding _ide gozaru_ or _ide gozatta_ instead of (27 _nande gozaru_; e.g., _agueide gozaru_ or _agueide gozatta_ 'I had not offered,' _zonzeide gozaru_ [_zonjeide_ ... ][88] 'I had not known,' _vochiide gozatta_ 'I had not fallen.' The negative future is formed by adding _mai_ or _maji_ to the affirmative root or the affirmative present tense; e.g., _ague mai_ or _aguru maji_ 'you will not offer.' The imperative is formed by placing _na_ after the present indicative; _aguru na_ 'do not offer.' It is also formed by placing _na_ before the root and _so_ after it; e.g., _na ague so_ 'do not offer.' It is also formed by placing _na_ after the root; e.g., _ague na_ 'do not offer,' _mixe na_ 'do not show,' _mesare na_ 'do not do.' The roots which end in _xi_ or _ji_, but are in the first conjugation,[89] change the _i_ to _e_ to form the negative imperative; e.g., _s[vo] xe na_ or _só maraxe na_ 'do not do that,' _s[vo] zonze na_ [_só zonje na_] 'do not think that.' The optative is formed by placing _negavacuva_ or _avare_ before the negative imperative and placing _caxi_ or _gana_ after it; e.g., _avare aguru na caxi_ 'oh! if only you would not offer,' and _negavacuva na ague so gana_ with the same meaning. The preterit of the optative is formed by placing _mono vo_ after the negative future; e.g., _aguru mai mono vo_ 'oh! if only you would not have offered.' The negative subjunctive is formed by changing the _u_ which ends the negative present to _eba_; e.g., _agueneba_ 'since he did not offer.' The preterit of the subjunctive is formed by adding _reba_ to the negative preterit of the indicative; e.g., _aguenanda reba_ 'since he had not offered.' {133} The future of the subjunctive is formed by adding _qereba_ to the negative future; e.g., _niguru mai qereba_ 'since he is not going to escape.' The permissive subjunctive is formed by adding _domo_ to the negative present after changing the final _u_ of the verb to _e_; e.g., _aguenedomo_ 'although he cannot offer.' They also say, and this usage is preferred, _aguenaidemo_ or _agueidemo_ 'even if he not offer.'[90] The preterit of the permissive subjunctive is formed by placing _redomo_ after the negative preterit; e.g., _aguenanda redomo_ 'although he had not offered.' _Aguenaidemo_ or _agueidemo_ 'although he would not be allowed to offer,' is also said. The permissive future is formed by adding _qeredomo_ to the negative future; e.g., _aguru mai qeredomo_ 'although he is not going to be allowed to offer.' (28 Another way of forming the permissive subjunctive is to place the particle _tomo_ after the negative root; e.g., _aguezu tomo_ 'although he is not going to be able to offer.' It is also formed by placing _tote_ after the [negative] present subjunctive; e.g., _agueneba tote_. A third way is to add _mamaio_ or _madeio_ to the negative present; e.g., _aguenu mamaio_ or _aguenu madeio_ 'although he cannot offer.' The preterit is formed by placing _ritomo_ after the negative preterit; e.g., _aguenanda ritomo_ 'although he had not offered.' It is also formed by placing _tote_ after the negative preterit of the subjunctive; e.g., _aguenanda reba tote_, or better, _aguenaidemo_ or _agueidemo_ 'although he does not offer, or had not offered.' The future is formed by placing _tomo_ after the negative future; e.g., _aguemai tomo_ 'although he is not going to offer,' _vochiidemo_ 'although he will not fall.' The present, preterit, and future infinitives are the present, preterit, and future negative indicative present tenses followed by _coto_ or _to_; e.g., _aguenu coto_ 'not to offer,' _aguenanda coto_ 'not to have offered,' _aguru mai coto_ 'not to be going to offer.' Sometimes they use the negative present instead of the preterit in all the conjugations; e.g., _mi maraxenu_ 'I did not see.' {134} The negative gerund in _Di_ is the same as the negative present or future; e.g., _aguenu_ or _aguru mai_ 'of not offering.' The gerund in _Do_ is formed by placing _ni_ after the negative root or the negative present tense; e.g., _aguezuni_ or _aguenuni_ 'by not offering.' The same meaning is obtained with _agueide_, _aguenaide_ or _aguezu xite_. The gerund in _Dum_ is formed by placing _tote_ or _tame_ after the [negative] present or future of the indicative; e.g., _aguenu tame_ or _aguru mai tote_ 'in order not to offer.' The present, preterit, and future participles are formed by adding _fito_ or _mono_ to the negative of the present, preterit, and future indicatives; e.g., _aguenu fito_ 'he who is not offering,' _aguenanda mono_ 'he who did not offer,' _aguru mai mono_ 'he who will not offer,' _aguenaide cara_ or _agueide nochi_ 'after he had not offered, after they did not offer, or after it was not offered.' (29 _The Second Affirmative Conjugation_ All the roots of the second conjugation end in _i_ and form their present tense by changing _i_ to _u_; e.g., _iomi:iomu_ 'I read.' If the root ends in _chi_ it changes its ending to _tçu_ e.g., _machi:matçu_ 'I wait.' If the root ends in _xi_ it changes to _su_; e.g., _coroxi:corosu_ 'I kill.' For the preterit, if the root ends in _ami_ it changes to _óda_; e.g., _cami:códa_ 'I ate, or chewed.' If it ends in _ebi_ or _emi_ it changes to _eôda_; e.g., _saqebi:saqeôda_ 'I am injured,' _sonemi:soneoda_ [_soneôda_] 'I envied, or I had envy.' If it ends in _obi_ or _omi_ it changes to _ôda_; e.g., _corobi:corôda_ 'he fell,' _comi:côda_ 'it enclosed itself.' If it ends in _umi_ it changes to _únda_ [_unda_]; e.g., _casumi:casunda_ 'it is cloudy.' The same change is made for roots ending in _imi_; e.g., _canaximi:canaxúnda_ [_canaxunda_] 'he became sad.' If it ends in _gui_ it changes to _ida_; e.g., _fegui:feida_ 'it is divided.' _Xini,uru_ has the preterit _xinda_ 'he is dead,' and _ini:uru_ has the preterit _inda_ 'he left.' While in this respect they [_xini_ and _ini_] are in the second conjugation, in the other tenses they are in the first. A root ending in _chi_ or _ri_ changes in the preterit to _tta_; e.g., _mochi:motçu_ in the preterit becomes _motta_ 'he received,' _chiri,u:chitta_ 'it is scattered.' Those which end in _xi_ or _qi_ change to _ita_; e.g., _coroxi,u:coroita_ 'he killed,' _qiqi,u:qiita_ 'he heard,' _xiqi,u:xiita_ 'he stretched it out.' {135} The future is formed by changing the _i_ in which the root ends to _ó, [vo]zu, ózuru_; e.g., _iomó_, _iom[vo]zu_, or _iomózuru_ 'you will read.' If the root ends in _chi_ it changes to _tó_; e.g., _machi:mató_ 'I shall wait.' A root ending in _xi_ changes to _só_; e.g., _móxi,u:mósó_ 'I shall say, or speak.' The imperative is formed by changing the _i_ in which the root ends to _e_; e.g., _iomi:iome_ 'read! or may you read.' If the root ends in _chi_ it changes to _te_; e.g., _machi:mate_ 'wait!' The imperative is also formed by changing the _nu_ in which the negative present ends to _ai_; if you remove the _nu_ from _iomanu_ and replace it with _ai_ it gives you _yomai_ 'read!'[91] This is a common rule for the third conjugation, but this imperative is used only when addressing inferiors. The future of the imperative is the future absolute; e.g., (30 _iomó_ 'you will read.' This is used when addressing very low people. The remaining tenses of the optative, subjunctive, gerund, and infinitive are formed in the same way and with the same particles as are used for each in the first conjugation. _The Second Negative Conjugation_ The root of the negative second conjugation is made by changing _i_, in which the affirmative root ends, to _azu_; e.g., _iomi:iomazu_ 'not reading.' If the root ends in _chi_ the present tense is formed by changing it to _tanu_; e.g., _machi:matanu_ 'I do not wait.' If it ends in _xi_ it changes to _sanu_; e.g., _coroxi:corosanu_ 'I do not kill.' If they end in any other way change _i_ to _anu_; e.g., _corobi:corobanu_ 'I do not fall.' The preterit is formed by changing the _nu_ of the present tense to _nanda_; e.g., _corobanu:corobananda_ 'I did not fall,' _iomananda_ 'I did not read.' The other tenses are formed in the same way as the negative first conjugation. _The Third Affirmative Conjugation_ The roots of the third conjugation end in _ai_, _oi_, or _ui_. Those ending in _ai_ change to _ó_ to form the present; e.g., _narai:naró_ 'I learn.' Those {136} ending in _oi_ change to _ô_; e.g., _vomoi:vomô_ 'I think.' Those ending in _ui_ change to _ú_; e.g., _cui:cú_ 'I eat.' The preterit is formed by adding _ta_ to the present tense; e.g., _naróta_ 'I learned,' _vomôta_ 'I thought,' _cúta_ 'I ate.' The pluperfect is formed by changing the final _a_ of the preterit to _e_ and adding the verb _gozaru_ in the present and _gozatta_ in the past, in the same way as we have described for the first conjugation; e.g., _naróte gozaru_ or _nar[vo]te gozatta_ 'I have already learned.' The future is formed by changing the final _i_ of the root to _vó_, _vózu_, or _vózuru_; e.g., _naravó_, _narav[vo]zu_, or _naravózuru_ 'I shall learn.' If the root ends in _oi_ it is changed to _vô_, _vôzu_, or _vôzuru_ [_v[vo]_, _v[vo]zu_, (31 or _v[vo]zuru_]; e.g., _vomoi:vomouô_, _vomovozu_, or _vomovôzuru_ [_vomoi:vomov[vo]_, _vomov[vo]zu_, or _vomov[vo]zuru_] 'I shall think.'[92] The imperative is formed by placing _e_ after the root; e.g., _naraie_ 'learn!' _toie_ 'ask!' _cuie_ 'eat!'[93] It is also formed by removing the syllable _nu_ from the negative present tense and replacing it with the letter _i_; e.g., _naravai_ 'learn!' _tovai_ 'ask!' _cuvai_ 'eat!' This form is used when addressing inferiors, as are those of the other conjugations. _The Third Negative Conjugation_ The root of the third negative conjugation is formed by changing the _i_ of the affirmative root to _vazu_; e.g., _naravazu_, _tovazu_, and _cuvazu_. The present tense is formed by changing the _i_ to _vanu_; e.g., _naravanu_ 'I do not learn,' _tovanu_ 'I do not ask,' _cuvanu_ 'I do not eat.' The preterit is formed by changing the _i_ of the root to _vananda_; e.g., _naravananda_ 'I did not learn,' _tovananda_ 'I did not ask,' _cuvananda_ 'I did not eat.' The pluperfect is formed by changing the final _a_ of the preterit to _e_ and adding the verb _gozaru_ or _gozatta_; e.g., _cuvanande gozatta_ 'I had {137} not eaten,' or _naravanande gozaru_ 'I had not learned.' The remaining forms are like the other conjugations.[94] If the substantive verb is placed after the gerund in _Do_ for all the affirmative and negative conjugations, it means that the action signified by the gerund is or is not done; e.g., _aguete aró_ 'it will already be offered,' _cono qió ga caite gozaranu_ 'this book is not written,' _agueide arózu_ 'he will not yet have offered.' The substantive verbs are _gozaru:gozaranu_, _voru:vori nai_, _dea_ or _gia:devanai_, _aru:aranu_ or _gozaranu_, _voru:voranu,_ and each of these verbs follows the general rules for its conjugation.[95] If the substantive verb from any of the conjugations is placed after the infinitive form it means that whatever is signified by the infinitive is, was, or will be; or the negative thereof; e.g., _aguru coto aró_ 'it will be that he offers,' that is to say 'he will offer,' _naróta coto gozaru mai_ 'he will not learn.' All these substantive verbs are conjugated in the second conjugation to which they belong by virtue of the fact that their (32 roots end in _i_; _ari,u:gozari,u_. _The Conjugation of the Negative Substantive Verb_ The negative substantive verb is _nai_, _gozanai_, or _vori nai_ which means 'not to be.' Its root is _naqu_, _gozanaqu_, or _vori naqu_. The preterit is formed by changing the _i_ in which the present tense ends to _c_ and then adding the preterit of _ari,u_ which is _atta_; e.g., _nacatta_ or _gozanacatta_ 'he was not.' The other tenses are conjugated, as is _ari,u_, in the second conjugation. The imperative is _nacare_, _nanaiso_, or _nai na_ 'be not!' {138} The subjunctive is formed by changing the _i_ of the present tense to _qereba_; e.g., _naqereba_ or _gozanaqereba_ 'if it be not.' The permissive subjunctive is formed by changing the _i_ of the present to _qeredomo_; e.g., _gozanaqeredomo_ 'although he is not.' The preterit of the subjunctive is formed by adding _redomo_ to the preterit of the indicative; e.g., _nacatta redomo_ 'although he was not.' The substantive [verb] with the particle _tomo_ is formed with the root; e.g., _naqu tomo_ 'even if it were not.' The gerund is _nó_, _nóte_, _naqu xite_, or _nacatte_ 'since it is not.' The remaining are formed as above, with the verb _ari,u_ added, and are conjugated in the second conjugation. Adjectives, when they do not precede verbs, are conjugated in the same way as the negative substantive verb. The adjectives, which have been said above to end in _ai_, _ei_, _oi_, _ui_, and _ij_, form their roots by changing the final _i_ to _qu_; e.g., _fucaqu_ is the root of 'deep,' _ioqu_ the root of 'good,' _xiguequ_ the root of 'dense,' _varuqu_ the root of 'bad,' and _vonajiqu_ the root of 'the same.' The present tense is the form (_vox_) of the adjective itself; e.g., _ioi_ 'good,' _fucai_ 'deep,' _varui_ 'bad,' _vonaji_ 'the same.'[96] The preterit is formed by changing the _i_ of the adjective to _c_ or _q_ and adding _ari,u_. This form is then conjugated according to (33 the tense required by the sentence. The permissive subjunctive with _tomo_ is _fucaqu tomo_ or _fucai tomo_ 'although deep.' The gerund in _Do_ is _fucóte_ 'since it was deep,' _ióte_ 'since it was good,' _canaxiúte_ [_canaxúte_][97] 'since it was sad,' _xingueote_ [_xigeôte_][98] 'since it was dense.' It also takes the form of _fucó xite_, _fucaqu xite_, or _fucacatte_, or again _iô xite_, _ioqu xite_, or _iocatte_. The adjectives which end in _na_ are not conjugated. There is, however, a gerund in _Do_. For example, _aqiracana_ has for its gerund _aqiracani xite_ 'since it was clear,' and with the same meaning there is _aqiraca de_. _Arisóna_ has _aris[vo]ni xite_ 'since it became apparent, or easy to believe.' _Ióna_ has _ióni_ as in _ióni xite_ 'since it is in a good way, or since it has a good manner.' _Cava ga fucóte vatarananda_ 'because the {139} river was deep, I did not cross it,' _xeb[vo]te irarenu_ 'since it was narrow, he was unable to enter,' _varúte cuvarenu_ 'it is inedible, or it cannot be eaten, because it is bad.' The other tenses of the adjective, as has been said, are formed with the verb _ari,u_ and conjugated according to the requirements of the sentence. The negative conjugation is also formed with _ari,u_; e.g., if the root is _fucacarazu_ the present tense is _fucacaranu_ 'it is not deep.' The preterit is _fucacarananda_ 'it was not, etc.' _The Conditional Particles_[99] There are five particles which make an utterance (_oratio_) conditional; _naraba_, _ni voite va_, _raba_, _va_, and _ba_. When the first two are placed after any verb, affirmative or negative, present, preterit, or future, the result is that the verb becomes conditional. For example; _niguru naraba_ 'if you flee,' _iôda ni voite va_ 'if you had read,' _naravó naraba_ 'if you will learn,' _cuvazu ni voite va_[100] 'if you do not eat.' Sometimes _voi_ [_voite_] is removed from _ni voite va_; _agueô ni va_ 'if you would offer,' _aguetaró ni va_ 'if you would have offered.' Sometimes _voite_ [_voite va_] is removed, leaving only _ni_; e.g., _mairó ni coso, nen goro ni m[vo]s[vo]zure_ (19) 'if I go, or if I shall have gone, I will tell him so in a friendly way,' _xitaró ni coso, saisocu tçuqu maji qere_ (19) 'if I (34 had done it, it would not have been done with diligence and persuasion.' The particle _raba_ is placed after the preterit;[101] e.g., _naróta raba_ 'if I would have learned,' _naravananda raba_ 'if I would not have learned.' The particle _va_ is added to the negative roots of all three conjugations; e.g., _aguezu va_ 'if I not offer,' _iomazu va_ 'if I not read,' _naravazu va_ 'if I not learn,' _naqu va_ 'if it not be,' _fucacarazu va_ 'if it be not deep.' The particle _ba_ has the same effect and is, like _va_, joined to the root; _aguez[~u]ba_, _iomaz[~u]ba_, _naravaz[~u]ba_.[102] If the particle _ba_ replaces the negative _zu_, an affirmative conditional is formed; e.g., _agueba_, 'if I offer,' _iomaba_ 'if I read,' _naravaba_ 'if I learn,' and _iocaraba_ 'if it be good.' The particle _va_ is not only added to the negative roots of adjectives, but also to the affirmative; e.g., _fucaqu va_ 'if it be deep,' _vonajiqu va_ 'if it be the same.' Sometimes they use this expression to give the idea 'if it be not {140} too troublesome, will you do it.' They also say _aguemajiqu va_ 'if you would not offer.' The particle _ni voite va_ is joined to nouns in such a way as to substitute for the substantive verb; e.g., _jójó ni voite va uqe toró_ (121v)[103] 'I shall get it, if it be very good, or the best,' _curuxicarazaru gui ni voite va_ 'if it would not have been unpleasant, or if it had not been an unpleasant thing.' If the particle _saie_ is placed in a clause (_oratio_) in which there is already a conditional particle, it adds strength to the meaning; e.g., _fune saie mairu naraba_ 'if only a ship were to come,' _sonata saie vocutabire naku va_ (118) 'if he be not tired,' or it might be said 'as for me, or as far as it depends upon me, I am not tired.' The particle _saie_ alone sometimes forms a conditional; e.g., _Niffon no xôcocu ni saie caióna coto gozaru fodo ni_ [_Nifon_ ...] (118) 'if in the small kingdom of Japan things of this kind be found, or exist,' that is to say 'how much more there will be in a large one,' _coco moto no tocai ni saie meivacu itasu ióni gozaru fodoni, etc._ (118) 'on the voyage here I suffered very much, and so ...,' _fito saie côquai suru mono vo iurusu ni ivan ia, Deus ni voite voia?_ [... _va?_] (118v) 'if one forgives one who repents, how much more will God,' _core fodo xei vo iruru saie coto naricanuru ni; ucato xite va, incadeca banji canav[vo]zo?_ [... _icadeca_ ...] (119) 'if gathering all one's strength this can be done only with difficulty, how could it be done if it were done without any strength?,' _core saie xinicui ni_ 'if this be difficult to do,' _fune de saie ioio tçuita_ (35 _ni, cachi va nananaca naru mai_ [... _nacanaca naru mai_] (119v) 'if I arrived by ship with such difficulties, without doubt I could not have done it on foot.' _The Potential Verb_[104] The placing of the particle r[vo][105] after the present or future tense makes a potential; e.g., _aguru r[vo]_ 'he perhaps offers,' _nigueozur[vo]_ [_nigueôzur[vo]_] 'he will perhaps escape.' The preterit is made by changing _ta_ to _tçu_ and adding r[vo]; e.g., {141} _aguetçur[vo]_ 'he perhaps offered.' But if it is added to the negative preterit, the _da_ must be changed to _zzu_; e.g., _aguenanzzur[vo]_ 'it has perhaps not been offered, etc.' The present potential is also formed by adding _ar[vo]zu_ [_mo ar[vo]zu_] or other future verbs to the infinitive; e.g., _aguru coto mo ar[vo]zu_ or _ague mo xôzu_ 'he will perhaps offer.' The preterit is formed by adding this same future to the preterit infinitive; e.g., _agueta coto mo ar[vo]zu_ 'he perhaps offered.' The future is _agueô coto mo ar[vo]zu_ 'he will perhaps offer.' The negative is formed in the same way; e.g., _aguenu_, _aguenanda_, or _aguru mai coto mo ar[vo]zu_ 'he perhaps does not offer, he perhaps did not offer, or he will perhaps not offer.' When we wish to say that something is perhaps the case we use _mono_ instead of _coto_; e.g., _noxenanda mono de arózu_ 'they perhaps did not place it aboard ship,' _iqi chig[vo]ta mono de ar[vo]zu_ 'they seem not to have met along the way,' _moreqicoieta mono de gozar[vo] ca to zonzuru_ 'I believe it is perhaps as it has been said.' To express the meaning 'become' the verb _nari,u_ is added to the adjective and then conjugated according to the requirements of the adjective taken adverbally; e.g., _fuc[vo] naru_ 'it becomes deep,' _var[vu] natta_ 'it became bad.' Also they say _fuc[vo] aru_ 'it is deep,' and sometimes _fuc[vo] nai_ 'it is not deep.' They obtain this same meaning by conjugating _nai_ according to the tense required by the sentence. They also use _fuc[vo] nai coto mo ar[vo]zu_ 'perhaps it will be that this is not deep.' (36 _The Conjugation of Irregular Verbs_[106] The verb _qi,uru_ 'to come' has _quru_ 'I come,' _qita_ 'I came,' _côzu_ 'I shall come,' _coi_ or _coio_ 'come!' _qitareba_ 'since he will have come, or would have come,' _qitaredomo_ 'although he came.' The negative root is _côzu_ [_cozu_] and the negative present is _conu_ 'I do not come.' _Mede_, which is the root of the verb meaning 'to enjoy,' has a present in _mezzuru_ and its gerund in _Do_ is _medete_ 'by enjoying.' _Cui_, which is the root of the verb meaning 'to be mournful,' has its present in _cuiuru_. {142} Its gerund in _Do_ is _cuite_ 'by mourning,' its negative root is _cuizu_, and its negative present is _cuinu_. _Araie_, which is the root of the verb 'to be,'[107] has a present in _araiuru_ or _ar[vo]ru_ 'it is.' _Furi_, which is the root of the verb 'to become old,' has a preterit in _furita_ 'he became old,' and a gerund in _Do_ which is _furite_ 'by becoming old.' _Fe_, the root of the verb meaning 'to cross over,' has a present in _furu_ 'he crosses over,' and a preterit in _feta_ 'he crossed over.' _Tari,u_ is a verb which signifies that a thing is complete or entire. It has a present in _taru_ 'it is complete,' a preterit in _tatta_ 'it was complete,' and a future in _tari maraxo_ [_maraxô_] 'it will be complete.' Its negative root is _tarazu_, its negative present is _taranu_, its preterit is _tarananda_ 'it was not complete,' its future is _taru mai_ 'it will not be complete,' and its imperfect subjunctive is _taraneba_ 'since it has not been completed.' The [negative] permissive is _taranedomo_, the infinitive is _taranu coto_, and the gerund in _Do_ is _taraide_ or _tarazu xite_. The verb _taxi:tasu_, which means 'to complete, or finish,' has a future in _taxi maraxô_ 'I shall finish.' _Tasanu_ is the negative present. _Tari_ [_Tarai_] is the root of the verb _tar[vo]_ which has the meaning 'to be completed.' In the negative the preterit is _taravananda_ 'it was not completed,' the subjunctive is _taravaneba_ 'since it is not completed,' the permissive is _taravanedomo_, the infinitive is _taravanu coto_, and the gerund in _Do_ is _taravaide_ or _taravaxu xite_ [_taravazu xite_]. _Vocotari_ is the root of the verb _vocotaru_ 'to be negligent.' It has an infinitive in _vocotaru coto_, a negative root in _vocotarazu_, and a negative present in _voicotaranu_ [_vocotaranu_]. _Voi_ is the root of a verb which has a preterit in _voita_ 'he was old.' (37 _Voitaru_ has the same meaning. The negative present is _voinu_ and the gerund in _Do_ is _voite_. _Urei_ is the root of the verb 'to be sad.' It has a present in _ureô_, an imperative in _ure io_ [_ureie io_][108] an infinitive in _ureoru coto_ [_ureôru_ ...].[109] Its gerund in _Do_ is _ureite_. _Tomi_ is the root of the verb _tomu_ or _tomeru_ 'to become rich.' Its preterit is _tonda_, its gerund in _Do_ is _tonde_, and its negative root is _tomazu_. _Saiguiri,u_ means 'to go before, or anticipate.' Its preterit is _saiguitta_ and its gerund in _Do_ is _saiguitte_. {143} _The Aforementioned Verbs--Their Formation and Diversity_[110] In this language there are simple active, causative active, passive, neutral, and impersonal verbs.[111] All are conjugated by the three conjugations according to the way in which their roots terminate. From certain adjectives come (_procedo_) certain verbs; e.g., from _catai_ 'hard' comes _catame,uru_ 'I make hard' which is active, _catamari,u_ 'I become hard' which is neutral, _catamerare,uru_ 'I am made hard' which is passive. From the adjective _canaxii_ 'sad' comes _canaximi,u_ which means 'to be sad.' The causative verbs (_verba faciendi facere_) are formed with the particles _saxe_ or _xe_. The first is added to the roots of verbs in the first conjugation,[112] while the second is [not] added to the roots of the second and third conjugation, but rather to the negative present after the _nu_ has been removed; e.g., _aguesaxe,uru_ 'I make him offer,' _iomaxe,uru_ 'I make him read,' _naravaxe,uru_ 'I make him learn.' All of these forms are in the first conjugation because the particles end in e. Sometimes, but rarely, _saxe_ follows verbs of the second and third conjugation, but this is to make the verbs more elegant. It is used with the particle _rare_ to honor someone; e.g., _iomasaxe rare,uru_ ['he makes him read']. _Padre va dojucu ni cathecismo vo naravasaxeraruru_ 'the priest orders his servant to learn his cathecism,'[113] _mono no fon vo fito ni_ (38 _iomasaxeraruru_ (162v.) 'he makes him read his book.' The passive verbs (_verba passiva_) are made with the particles _rare_ and _re_. The particle _rare_ is added to the active verbs, according to the way explained before, after removing the _nu_ from the negative form; e.g., _aguerare,uru_ 'I am offered it,' _iomare,uru_ 'I am read to,' _naravare,uru_ 'I am taught.' They use these passive forms to mean 'to be read to by someone,' or 'to be, or not to be legible.' There are other passive forms which come from neutral verbs or verbs which have neutral meanings. They are also formed with the particles _rare_ and _re_, but when they are so formed they do not govern the cases common to {144} the passive (for which see below) but rather the cases of the verbs from which they come; e.g., from _agari,u_ comes _agarare,uru_; and, since _agari,u_ 'I ascend' requires the accusative, this verb also requires the accusative. For example; _cono iama ie agararenu_ (102) 'it is not possible to climb this mountain, or this mountain is unable to be climbed,' _xiro cara derarenu_ (102) 'it is not possible to leave the castle,' _xebóte irarenu_ (102) 'it is not possible to penetrate because it is too narrow, or confined,' _cono michi va arucarenu_ (102) 'it is not possible to walk this street,' _natçu va coco ni irare mai_ 'it will not be possible to live here during the summer,' _cono fude de va cacarenu_ (102) 'it cannot be written with this pen,' _fima ga nóte cacarenanda_ (102) 'it cannot be written because of the lack of time,' _cono bun ni coso cacaruru mono de gozare_ (69v) 'it will indeed be well written in this way,' _axi ga itóte arucarenu_ (102) 'it is impossible to walk because of painful feet.' All of these passive verbs are of the first conjugation.[114] The neutral verbs (_verba neutra_) are those which have a neutral meaning; i.e., being initiated by oneself, and not by others. For example; _ivo ga toruru_ 'the fish are caught,' _caje ga toruru_ 'the wind ceases,' _ito ga qiruru_ 'the string is cut,' _ji ga iomuru_ (100) 'the letter [Chinese character] is well read,' _aqi,u_ 'I am uncovered.' _Qiri,u_ 'I cut' is active, _qirare,uru_ is passive, and _qire,uru_ 'I am cut' is neutral. This last form is used when a sword cuts well because it is sharp. _Qiraxe,uru_ is a causative verb which means 'I make someone cut.' _Ague,uru_ means 'I raise,' _aguerare,uru_ 'I am raised' passively, _aguesaxe,uru_ 'I make someone raise,' _agari,u_ 'I am raised' neutrally, _agarare,uru_ 'to be ascendable,' _agaraxe,uru_ 'I cause something to be raised, or I cause him or it to raise himself or itself.' If to these verbs are added the particles which indicate honor (see below) other combinations are made. The adjectives when they are conjugated have a neutral meaning; e.g., _fidarui_ 'I am thirsty,' _fucacatta_ 'it was deep.' The impersonal verbs (_verba impersonalia_) do not name or refer to a person; e.g., _mi vo fatasu tomo itçuvari vo ivanu mono gia_ (39 (69v) 'even if one were to die, one should not tell a lie,' _mono mo tabezu saqe mo nomaide ichinichi fataraqu mono ca?_ (69v) 'is it possible to work all day without eating anything or drinking any wine?', _xujin no_ {145} _maie de sono ióna coto vo iú mono ca?_ 'is it possible to speak this way in front of ones lord?' Concerning the conjugations for these verbs they follow the rules according to their roots. The root of any verb of whatever conjugation can be taken from its conjugation and changed to another conjugation by adding one of the particles of honor (_honor_). The resulting form will belong to the conjugation determined by the final letter of the particle. These particles are: _maraxi,uru_, _ari,u_, _saxerare,uru_, _xerare,uru_, _nasare,uru_, _saxemaxi,u_, _tamai,ó_, _rare_ and _re_.[115] The particle _maraxi_ does not add honor to that which is talked about, but rather it is used to speak honorably to those in front of us. For example; _cui,u_ means 'I eat,'[116] but a servant in front of his master will not say _nezumi ga cúta_ 'the mice ate the cheese'; he will rather say _nezumi ga cui maraxita_. By itself _cui,u_ is in the third conjugation because its root ends in _ui_, but if _maraxi_ is added it becomes a verb in the first conjugation. When we refer to something about a people (_natio_) we do not show honor to that word but only pay attention to the person we are speaking to by adding _maraxi_ or not. For example, if we are addressing an inferior we say _Nan ban jin va core vo cuvanu_; but if we are addressing a person of nobility we say _Nan ban jin va core vo cui maraxenu_ 'Europeans do not eat this.' When _ari,u_ is added to the root of any verb it attaches a middling (_mediocris_) degree of honor; e.g., _modori aró ca?_ 'are you going to come back?' If you add _vo_ in front of the verb it is honored moderately (_satis_); e.g., _vomodori aró ca?_ 'Your Lordship is going to come back?' _Tono sama vo xini atta toqi_ 'when the master died,' _Deus cono xecai vo gosacu atta_ 'God created the world.'[117] We use these particles when we are speaking with honored persons whom we like and with whom we are on friendly terms. The particle _nasare,uru_ gives the highest (_supremus_), or moderately great (_satis magnus_) honor and is placed after the root of the verb; e.g., _Deus cono xecai vo gosacu nasareta_ 'God created the world.' The particles _rare_ and _re_ add a middling and not a great amount {146} of honor to the verbs to which they are added. The particle _rare_ is added mainly when we are talking about someone who is absent. It is formed by taking the _nu_ from the negative present and replacing (40 it with this particle; e.g., _aguerare,uru_ means 'I offer' when the person to whom the offering is made requires a middling degree of honor and respect (_reverentia_). This verb coincides letter for letter with the passive but is distinguished from it by the cases which it governs. The particle _re_ is placed after verbs of the second and third conjugation only; e.g., _iomare,uru_ 'to read' and _naravare,uru_ 'to learn,' said of a person having a good reputation. We speak in this way when speaking of those who are equal to us and the servants of our lord, but not of other servants, or nobles. The particles _saxemaxi_ and _xemaxi_ give the same degree of honor as _ari,u_ and _rare_ or _re_. These particles are added to the root of a first conjugation verb,[118] or to the negative present from which the _nu_ has been removed; _aguesaxemasu_ 'he offers.' _Maxi,u_ [_Xemaxi,u_] is added to the negative present of the second and third conjugation verbs after taking away _nu_; e.g., _iomaxemasu_ 'he reads,' and _naravaxemasu_ 'he learns.' The particles _saxerare,uru_ and _xerare,uru_ attribute great honor. The first is added to the negative present of verbs in the first conjugation[119] after the _nu_ is removed, and the second is added to the [other] negatives in the same way; e.g., _aguesaxeraruru_ 'I offer,' _iomaxeraruru_ 'I read,' _naravaxeraruru_ 'I learn.' Because these forms coincide letter for letter with the honorific causative, the particle _ari,u_ may be placed after the verb and the particle _vo_ may be placed before to avoid confusion; e.g., _yomaxe aru_ [_vo iomaxe aru_] 'I read' and _naravaxe aru_ [_vo naravaxe aru_] 'I learn.' The passive verb, concerning which see below, also permits the particle _saxerare,uru_; e.g., _viamavaresaxeraruru_ (99v) 'I am honored.' The particle _tamai,ó_ bestows the highest honor. We use it when speaking of God, saints, kings, or generals. It is added to the roots of verbs and conjugated in the third conjugation. It is placed after the root of the passive form when referring to God; e.g., _Deus filio, umare_ {147} _tam[vo] toqi_ 'when the son of God was born,' _Deus agamerare tam[vo]_ 'God is honored.' The particle _tate matçuri,u_ makes the meaning of the verb to which it is added humble. It is placed after the root of affirmative verbs; e.g., _Deus vo gotaixet ni zonji tate matçuru coto va ichi sugureta jen gia_ 'to love God is the supreme virtue.' This particle permits some degree of honor if _re_ is added to it after the final _e_ [_i_] has been changed to a. Thus, when speaking of the saints in respect to God, one says, (41 _Sancto Domingo, Deus vo gotaixet ni zonji tatematçurareta_ 'St. Dominic loved God.' The particle _maraxi_ [_mairaxi_][120] is able to elevate to honor the particle _rare_; e.g., _tono iori cono coto vo Padre ni vataximairaxerareta_ 'the lord gave it to the priest.' _Certain Verbs Which of Themselves Indicate Honor_[121] _Mesare,uru_ indicates any act which can be done, or which is properly done by a noble person (_persona nobilis_). This includes such things as eating, drinking, sailing, riding a horse, etc. _Vôxerare,uru_ means that a noble person speaks. _Vomaraxi,uru_ and _vomaraxi ari,u_ mean that a noble person gives. _Voxe,uru_ [_Vôxe,uru_] and _vôxe ari,u_ mean that a middling person (_persona mediocris_) says or declares. Verbs preceded by _vôxe_ or _mexi_ are given the same degree of honor by either; e.g., _vôxe tçuqerare,uru_ 'I declare,' _mexi tçucavare,uru_ 'I serve,' which have the same meanings as _tçuqerare,uru_ and _tçucavare,uru_. To call someone we use _coi_ with an inferior, with someone not quite as inferior we use _iorai_, with someone a little better we use _vaxei_, while _vogiare_ is the superior way to call. _Gozare_, which means that your Lordship should come, and _gozar[vo]_ in the future tense are even more honorable ways to indicate the imperative. _Voide nasarei_, _voide nasareô_, or _voide nasarei caxi_ mean 'might your Lordship come,' or 'Oh! would that your Lordship come.' _Cudasare,uru_ means that a noble person gives. _Tamavari,u_ means that a noble person gives to an inferior. _Tamóri,u_ means that a middling person gives. _Mizzu vo nomaxete tam[vo]re_ 'Give me a drink of water.' _Cudasare,uru_ and _tamóri,u_ mean {148} that a humble person eats honoring his food. _Coximexi,u_ and _qicoximexi,u_ mean that a noble person eats and hears. _Voboximexi,u_ and _voboximesare,uru_ mean that a noble person thinks. _Saxerare,uru_ means that a noble person does. _Nasare,uru_, _asobaxi,u_, and _asobasare,iuru_ [_asobasare,uru_] mean that a noble person does what is proper to him such as hunting, writing, reading, or reciting. _Ii,ú_ is used when the person addressed is humbler than the person or thing spoken to; (42 and _mexi,u_ [_móxi,u_] means the person or the thing spoken to is addressed with honor. Therefore I would be incorrect were I to say _mi ni móxe_ 'tell me!' I should rather say _mi ni iie_. I should not say _tono ni iie_ 'tell it to the lord,' but rather _tono ni móxe_. _Mairi,u_ means to go to a place to which honor should be shown; e.g., _iglesia ie maire_ 'go to church!' _Cure,uru_ and _toraxe,uru_ mean to give in a way that humbles the person to whom the thing is given. _Cui,ú_ means 'to eat' without showing respect (_respectus_); _mexi,u_ also means 'to eat' but it is cultivated (_urbanum_); e.g., in addressing those deserving respect I will not say _mexi vo cui maraxita_ but rather _mexi vo tabe maraxita_ 'I ate.' _Mairi,u_ or _vomairari,u_ [_vomairi ari,u_] means that a middling person eats, while _agaraxerare,uru_ and _voagari ari,u_ are nobler ways to say this. _Qiqi,u_ means to hear and _uqetamavari,u_ and _uqetamóri,u_ mean to hear in a way which honors the person heard; e.g., _goiqen vo uqetam[vo]tta_ 'I heard your advice.' _Móxi ague,uru_ means to speak in a way which humbles oneself while bestowing honor on the person being addressed. _Móxi ire,uru_ means to speak between equals (_equales_). _Chómon xi,uru_ means to listen to the word of God. _Goranji,zuru_ or _goranjerare,uru_ is to look at a noble thing. _Xi,uru_ means to do in common way, _itaxi,u_ means to do in a cultivated way, and _tçucamatçuri,u_ means to do in a humble way. _Cautionary Remarks on the Conjugations of the Verb_[122] The particle _nama_ placed before any verb in any tense means that the action has been done poorly or in an incomplete manner; e.g., _nama aró_ 'I wash poorly,' _nama iaqu_ 'I am incompletely broiled.' {149} If the particles _tçui_, _cai_, _uchi_, _faxe_, _voi_, _ai_, and _tori_[123] are placed in front of a verb they do not change the meaning, but they add emphasis; e.g., _uchi cobosu_ has the same meaning as _cobosu_ 'I pour,' _faxe noboru_ is the same as _noboru_ 'I ascend,' _voxi comi,u_ is the same as _comi,u_ 'I enclose,' _ai cavari,u_ is the same as _cavari,u_ 'I am changed,' _tçui mavari,u_ is the same as _mavari,u_ 'I go around,' and _tori firogue,uru_ is the same as _firogue,uru_ 'I spread out.' The particle _qitte_ is the gerund in _Do_ for the verb _qiri,u_ and when it is placed after the roots of certain verbs it gives them great emphasis; e.g., _tanomiqitte_ 'imploring with great prayers,' _vomoiqitte_ (43 'assuming a strong resolution.' The verbs _tanomiqiri,u_ and _vomoiqiri,u_ are also used. The particle _ma_, when placed in front of certain verbs and nouns, gives them a stronger meaning; e.g., _mamucai_ 'quite present,' _macuroi_ 'completely black.' The particle, or better root of the verb, _macari,u_, when placed before verbs of motion, makes the verbs modest and a bit more cultivated; e.g., _macari noboru_ 'I ascend,' _macari cudari,u_ 'I descend,' and _macari i,iru_ 'I am present.' The particle _va_ placed after a sentence confirms what has been said before, as one might boast of making a prediction; e.g., _fune va cuchinotçu ie iru va_ 'the ship calls at Kuchinotsu; and, if he says so or not, I say so,' _aru va_ 'see if it is not as I have said.' The particle _aidani_ means 'between' in the sense of the time consumed in performing an action; e.g., _agura aidani_ [_aguru aidani_] 'while offering,' _iôda aidani_ 'while he read,' _naravózuru aidani_ 'while he will learn.' The particle _ga_ means 'but;' _só iú ga; nanto aró ca?_ 'they say so, but will it be so?' or 'it may be so, but I don't know for certain,' _furi va furu mai ga, fune no dasu coto naró ca xiranu_ 'it's not raining any more, but I still don't know if it will be possible to launch the boat or not,' _sono qinpen ni va gozaru mai ga; doco cara toraxeraruru zo?_ (20)[124] 'there are probably none in the neighborhood, or in the surroundings, so from where can they be gotten?' {150} The particle _gotoqu_ is added to the present, preterit, and future tenses meaning 'in the same way'; e.g., _coxiraiuru gotoqu_ 'in the same way as you furnish or carry out,' _qiita gotoqu_ 'as I heard.' The form is sometimes _ga gotoqu_; e.g., _móxita ga gotoqu_ 'as he said,' _caracavózu ga gotoqu_ 'as in jest I will tease or laugh at.' This same meaning is obtained with _i[vo]ni_; _Nifon no catagui vo xirareta i[vo]ni, vôxeraruru_ (122v) 'he speaks as one who knows the customs of Japan,'[125] _mósu ióni_ 'as I say.' The particle _furi_ is also used for the same purpose; e.g., _toza no chijocu vo nogareôzuru tameni catana vo saita furi vo mixerareta_ (123) 'he showed himself wearing his sword in order to avoid the danger of infamy.' _minu furi vo saxerareta_ (123) 'he made it known that he did not see.' The particle _saie_ is used [with the negative] to mean 'not at all'; e.g., _mma saie nacatta_ (118)[126] 'there are not any horses at all,' _cotoba saie xiranu mono_ (118) 'he does not know how to speak at all,' _ji saie mixiranu mono_ 'he does not know any letters at all.' This same particle is used for emphasis; e.g., _qiden to saie m[vo]xeba_ (119) 'it would (44 suffice if you were to say that you are,' _Padre no tçucavaruru to saie móxeba_ 'if only he had said that this was useful to the priest,' or one might say 'it would suffice if, etc.' The particle _qere_ is a confirmative particle which comes at the end of a sentence with the meaning 'therefore'; e.g., _maitta qere_ 'therefore he came,' _sate só aru qere_ 'finally this is the situation.'[127] The particle _coso_ is of great importance among the Japanese for they use it first in an adversative sense (_in sensu adversativo_); _core coso ió gozare_ [... _iô_ ...] 'he is truly good.'[128] If the sentence in which this particle is found ends in a verb, that verb ends in _e_, as in the example above. If the verb is in the preterit it ends in _re_; e.g., _yô coso gazattare!_ (117) 'you are welcome! (_bene veneris!_).' The exceptions to this rule are when the sentence does not end in a verb or an adjective; e.g., _core coso xixó yô_ [... _io_] (116) 'he is a true teacher,' when after the particle _coso_ there is in the sentence a gerund in _e_, a permissive in _tomo_, or a {151} potential preterit in _tçuró_ or _zzuró_;[129] e.g., _vare coso iro iro xinro tçucamatçutte cutatireba toxiiórini nari maraxita_ [... _cutabireba toxiiorini_ ...] (117) 'suffering many and various hardships, I became an old man,' _vare coso corosaruru tomo_ 'if I be killed,' _fara coso tattçur[vo]_ (117) 'he was perchance quite angry,' _sato chicaqereba coso fi ga miiure_ (116) 'the fire is already seen because the village is so near.' This [last] sentence ends in _e_ because it does not contain an exception to the rule. _Vóxerareta coto domo vo go côquai de coso gozarózure_ (97) 'without doubt you will do penance for what you have said,' _catajiqe n[vo] coso gozare_ (97) 'I congratulate you very much and thank you.' If someone says, 'Who did that?' the answer is _Patre coso_ [_Padre coso_] 'the Priest did.' If someone asks, 'is there anyone who did that?' and if he does not hear, or does not understand the answer, and asks again, the person who answered will say _Juan coso_ 'I have already said it was John.' When someone is careless about what was said, or when he has not heard something and asks again, the answer is; e.g., _tovoru na to iieba_ 'I have already told you not to pass through,' _iome to iieba_ 'I have already told you to read,' _Padre coso to iieba_ 'I have already told you that it is the Priest.' Adding the particles _maieni_ and _saqini_ to the negative present tense makes the construction affirmative; e.g., _iglesia ie mairanu maieni_ (141v) 'before he goes to church.' They are also added to the affirmative future tense; e.g., _mair[vo]zuru tote no saqini_ 'a little before (45 I come.' The particle _tocoro_ signifies the time during which the action indicated by the verb is done. It is placed after the verb; _taburu tocoro ni_ 'when I was eating,' _tabeta tocoro ni_ 'after dinner,' _tabeôzuru tocoro ni_ or _tabeôzuru ni_ 'when I will be eating.' It also serves as a reduplicative particle which denotes a reduplication to the degree possible; e.g., _jesu christo humanidad no von tocoro va_ (121v)[130] 'Jesus Christ in so far as he was a man,' _vonore ga foxxezaru tocoro vo fodocosu coto nacare_ (121) 'as you do not want done to you, do not do to others,' _fudai no tocoro vo vo iurusu_ [... _tocoro vo iurusu_] (120v) 'I gave him his freedom,' _fito no acu no tocoro ni va dôxin xenu_ (121v) 'I do {152} not consent to the sins of man,' _utagó tocoro mo nai_ (120v) 'there remains no place to doubt, or for doubt,' _nocoru tocoro mo nai_ 'it does not remain any more,' _tçuini, sono tocoro ie mairózu_ (121v) 'finally he will arrive at this place,' _fumbet ni voiobanu tocoro gia_ (121v) 'there are some things which are not understood, or to which one's comprehension does not extend,' _nani mo nai tocoro vo iô qicoximexe_ (120v) 'will your Lordship kindly eat from this littleness which is nothing.' From these examples it is possible to see the force of this particle. The particles _tocoro_, _made_, and _made de gozaru_ are often added to an utterance (_cadentia_). They do not have any special meaning and are the same as _coto de gozaru_; e.g., _naranu made_ or _naranu coto de gozaru_ mean the same as _naranu_ 'it is not possible.' _Guijet tçucamatçur[vo] to zonzuru coto va cacugo itasanu coto gia_ (10v) 'the breaking of this friendship does not come to mind.' Here the _itasanu coto gia_ is the same as _itasanu_ alone. The particle _madeio_ is used to confirm what has been said; e.g., _caita madeio_ 'that which I wrote, I wrote.' The particle _toqi_ when added to the present tense, forms a preterit imperfect; e.g., _jennin tachi va saigo ni voiobi tamó toqi va buji ni gozatta_ 'when saints arrive at the time of their death, they are peaceful and quiet.' Changing the _ta_ of the preterit to _tçu_ and the _da_ of the negative to _zzu_[131] the meaning becomes 'I do it this way and then that way'; e.g., _mono vo caitçu, iôzzu, nando xite curasu bacari gia_ 'I spend my life reading, writing and doing other things,' _tattçu itçu vocu iori zaxiqi ie ide zaxiqi iori vocu ie iri xitten batt[vo] xeraruru_ (11v) 'standing and sitting, entering and departing, he stands up and falls down.' The particle _ri_ gives the same meaning after the preterit; e.g., _xeqen no mono va netari voqitari n[vo]dari curasu bacari gia_ (11) 'men of the world spend their lives sleeping, arising, and drinking,' _mazzu_ (46 _ite niva vo mo facaxetari, cusa vo mo ficaxetari iroiro no xigoto vo ateg[vo]te cosó mair[vo]zure_ [... _coso_ ...] (10v) 'I shall go and sweep out the courtyard (_atrium_), pull up the weeds, and then having dispensed with these things I shall go,' _ima cono io fuqe iuqeba nome ia, utaie ia fito bito motçu, ut[vo]tçu sacamori suru_ (129) 'when it already is late at {153} night, urging themselves on to drink and sing, the men enjoy themselves dancing and singing.' The particle _ie_, which is the root of the verb _ie iuru_ [_ie:uru_][132] 'I can,' signifies, when placed before negative verbs, that the action expressed by the verb cannot be done; e.g., _ie iomanu_ 'I cannot read.' This particle is also placed after the infinitive; e.g., _iomanu coto vo ienu_ 'I cannot read.' _Iomi va ieide_, or _iomi mo ieide_ 'since I could not read, or not being able to read' is also said. The infinitive sometimes acts as a substitute verb (_suppositum verbum_); e.g., _xinuru coto va vosoroxij_ 'it is terrible to die.' The particle _tai_ 'I want' is added to the roots of verbs and signifies the desire to do the thing indicated by the verb; e.g., _mizzu vo nomi tai_[133] 'I want to drink some water,' _mizzu vo nomi tó gozaru_ or _mizzu vo nomi tó zonzuru_, but these last two forms are more noble. Here is an example of the noble form in the negative, _t[vo] mo nai_; e.g., _mizzu vo nomi t[vo] mo nai_ 'I do not want to drink water,' and _mizzu vo nomi t[vo] mo gozaranu_. _Mairu tó mo zonjenu_ means 'I do not want to go.' When the particle _tai_ is added to adjectives, or verbs indicating a sensory act (_actionem sensitiuam_) in the first person,[134] the _i_ is changed to _c_; and the verb _ari,u_ is added and conjugated in the tense required by the sentence; e.g., _cuitacatta_ 'I wanted to eat.' If the verb is in the second or third person, the _i_ is changed to _g_ and again the verb _ari,u_ is added, or an honorific particle depending upon what the person deserves, or without it as an absolute form. But if the person is inferior, the _i_ is changed to _c_ as said before. The particle _de_ sometimes gives a subjunctive sense when it is added to nouns; e.g., _varãbe de xinda_ 'he died a child, or when he was a child,' _vare ga buchófó de tofó mo gozanai_ (163v)[135] [... _buchôfó_ ...] 'since I am clumsy and not careful, nothing will work out in a way that will be harmonious.' The particle _ió_ 'way' is added to the roots of verbs and also to the {154} verbs themselves. When the root governs the genitive, the verb governs the same case; e.g., _cono qi[vo] no iomi ió va_ 'the way of (47 reading this book,' or _cono qió vo iomu i[vo] va_. In the first sentence _qi[vo]_ is in the genitive with the particle _no_; in the second sentence it is in the accusative with _vo_ because _yomu_ governs this case. _Tei_ signifies an extraordinary and marvelous way of doing something; e.g., _machicanuru tei vo goron jerarei_ (122)[136] 'might your Lordship observe the way that they are expectant.' Also, _arisama_ means 'way,' _me mo aterarenu arisama gia_ 'it is a way, or a form (_figura_), which is unable to be seen.' _Sama_ indicates the time of the action of the verb to which it is added while governing the case required by the verb. It is added to the root of the verb; e.g., _saqe vo nomi sama ni_ (105) 'when he actually drank the wine,' _iado ie caieri sama ni_ (105) 'when he returned home,' _fune iori agari sama ni_ (105) 'when he actually disembarked from the ship,' _fune ni nori sama ni_ 'when he actually boarded the ship.' When there are in a sentence two verbs whose actions form a single action, the first verb is put into the form of the gerund in _Do_; e.g., _mizzu vo motte coi_ 'bring some water, or come bringing water,' _fune vo voite coi_ 'bring the boat here, or come poling the boat,' _core vo totte iqe_ 'take this, or carry this and go.' The gerund in _Do_ when added to verbs of asking, giving, or doing, means that one is asking to know or to acquire the thing which is indicated by the verb to which it is added; e.g., _nifon guchi vo voxiiete cure io_ 'teach me Japanese,' _s[vo] voxerarete cudasaruru na_ [_s[vo] vôxerarete_ ...] 'your Lordship ought not say that,' _Deus no coto vo catatte tam[vo]re_ 'do me the favor of relating to me those things which pertain to God.' The particle _mo_ placed after the gerund in _Do_, whether it ends in _te_ or _de_, means 'although'; e.g., _s[vo] m[vo]xite mo_ 'although you say so,' _ica fodo susumete mo, corobu mai_ 'no matter how much you try to persuade me, I will not deny the faith.' They also use _s[vo] m[vo]xeba atte mo_ 'even if you say that,' _d[vo]xitemo c[vo]xitemo_ (134v) 'what ever you do.' If the particle _coso_ (see above) is added to the affirmative gerund in _Do_; and, if the sentence ends in this particle, the sentence becomes {155} negative; e.g., _mite coso_ 'I did not see anything,' _atte coso_ 'there is no way.' But if the sentence does not end in _coso_, it becomes affirmative (48 and emphatic; e.g., _mite coso gozare_ (116) 'I certainly saw.' The verb ends in _e_ according to the rule explained above when the particle _coso_ was being discussed. When the negative gerund in _Do_, which ends in _e_, is followed by _va_, _naranu_, or _canavanu_ it expresses necessity or the impossibility of the contrary; e.g., _mairaide canavanu_ (106v)[137] 'it is necessary to go,' _ivaide va no coto naredomo, nanto xô ca?_ 'and if the thing which is said to be necessary happens, what shall I do?' _xitagavaide naranu_ 'it is necessary to obey.' The same meaning, but with less strength, is obtained with the future of the affirmative or negative infinitive and the permissive subjunctive in _domo_; e.g., _mair[vo] coto de gozatta redomo_ (18)[138] 'although I should have gone,' _mairu mai queredomo_ [... _qeredomo_] (18)[139] 'although I should not be going,' _mair[vo] coto de gozanacatta redomo_ (18) 'although I did not have to go.' They also use the negative gerund in _Do_ to obtain the meaning of 'if not'; e.g., _òracio vo m[vo]saide cú na_ 'do not eat unless you have said your prayers.' The gerund in _e_ indicates an action already done; e.g., _mexi cúte coi_ 'come after eating!' _cono qió ga caite gozaru_ 'this book was written,' _chichi ni fumi vo cacaide cuiaxiú gozaru_ [... _cuiaxú_ ...] 'I am ashamed that I did not send a letter to your father,' _cono qió ga caite gozaranu_ 'this book was not written.' The particle _nagara_, when added to the root of a verb, forms a gerund in _Do_ if it is followed by a verb indicating a repugnant or contrary action; e.g., _toganin Deus iori bacutai no go von, o uqetatematçuri nagara; caietta somuqi tatematçuru_ [... _go von vo uqe_ ...][140] 'sinners receiving, or even if sinners receive, benefits from God, they will offend him rather than be grateful,' _Jesu Cristo Deus de gozari nagara, fito ni taixite cruz ni cacaraxerareta_ 'while Jesus Christ was a God, he was crucified for man.' _Nagara_ is also added to nouns; e.g., _quantai nagara_ (136v) 'although there was some lack of education,' _sannin nagara_ (137) 'three at the same time, or even if there are three' _aqiraca_ {156} _nagara_ (136v) 'although he is famous.' In this instance _aqiraca na_ loses its _na_ as do all the other adjectives that end in _na_. The particle _iasui_ is added to the roots of active and passive verbs to form the supine in _Tu_; e.g., _iomi iasui_ 'easy to read,' _corosare iasui_ 'easy to be killed.' The same thing is achieved by the following way of speaking; _iúte va vosoroxij_ 'it is terrible to say,' _mite va_ (49 _fuxiguina_ 'it is admirable to see,' _iú vo mo vosoroxij_ 'it is terrible to say.' The Adverbs _First Section_[141] Adverbs are formed from adjectives ending in _ai_ by changing the _ai_ to _ó_; e.g., _fucó_ 'deeply,' for those ending in _oi_ by changing the _oi_ to _ô_; e.g., _caxico_ [_caxicô_] 'wisely,' for those ending in _ei_ by changing the _ei_ to _eô_; e.g., _xigueo_ [_xigueô_] 'densely,' for those ending in _ui_ by changing the _ui_ to _ú_; e.g., _ai[vu]_ 'in danger,' and for those ending in _ij_ by changing the _ij_ to _iú_; e.g., _cavaiú_ 'unhappily.' _Adverbs of Place_[142] The interrogative pronouns are eight in number; _izzucu_[?], _izzucata_[?], _donata_[?], _doco?_, _dochi?_, _dochira?_, _dono tocoro_[?], and _dono f[vo]?_, and they signify 'which place?' To these adverbs are added the particles _va_, _no_, _ni_, _ie_, _vo_, _cara_, and _iori_ according to the case required, such as 'from where,' 'whither,' 'through which place,' 'in what place,' etc. _Made_ can also be added to them with the meaning of 'to the limit of which'; _doco made ie iqó ca_[?] 'up to where will you go?' The interrogative particle, _ca?_ or _zo_[?], is added to these questions but it is better to use _zo_ rather than _ca_ in sentences with an interrogative particle; e.g., _izzuru ie maitta zo_ 'where did you go,' _dono tocoro vo tovotta zo_ 'at which place did you cross,' _doco iori itta zo_ 'through where did he enter,' _dochi cara qita zo?_ 'from where did he come?', {157} _donata va Pedro no iado zo_[?] 'which is Peter's house?', _doco ni voru zo_[?] 'where, or in what place is he?' One may respond in many ways; _cono tocoro_, _coto moto_, [_coco moto_], _core_, _conata_, _cochi_, _cochira_, _coco_, _cocora_, _cono cata_, _cono f[vo]_, which mean 'here (_hic_)'; _sono tocoro_, _soco moto_, _sore_, _sonata_, _sochi_, _sochira_, _soco_, _socora_, _sono cata_, _sono f[vo]_ (50 which mean 'there (_istic_)'; _ano tocoro_, _asoco moto_, _are_, _anata_, _achi_, _achira_, _asoco_, _asocora_, _ano cata_, _anofó_, which mean 'there (_illic_).' To these particles are added the case particles. The interrogative adverbs with the case particles and _mo_ added mean 'everywhere,' 'through every place,' or 'to every place,' e.g., _dono tocoro ie mo tovor[vo]_ 'I shall go everywhere,' _doco ni mo_ 'everywhere,' _doco cara mo_ 'from everywhere.' However, if, instead of _mo_, _nari tomo_ is added the meaning becomes 'any place,' in a distributive sense; e.g., _doco ie nari tomo mair[vo]_ 'I shall go to each place individually.' The same meaning is obtained by _doco zo_ with the case particles placed between the _doco_ and the _zo_; e.g., _doco ni zo aru fodo ni_ 'if someone is any place.' _Coco caxico_ means 'here and there.' _Doco mo caxico mo_ means 'the whole place.' The case particles are placed before _mo_; e.g., _doco ni mo caxico ni mo_ 'in the whole place,' but after the adverb; e.g., _coco caxico ni_ 'here and there,' _coco caxico ie doco_, _caxico iori_ [_coco caxico ie_ 'to here and there,' _coco caxico iori_ 'from here and there'], etc.[143] The particle _uie_ means 'above.' The genitive case is placed before it; e.g., _fandai no uie ni voqe_ 'place it on the table,' _cono uie va gozaru mai_ 'it will not be above this,' that is to say 'it will not be better than this,' _sono uie ni_ 'about that,' _sono uie no sata vo catari are_ 'tell me about that,' _core va izzure iori mo uie de gozaru_ 'one will not discover anything better than his,' that is to say 'this is the best.' _Xita_ means 'below.' It governs the genitive; e.g., _fandai no xita ni voqe_ 'place it under the table,' _micotoba no xita iori_ (141v) 'when the king finishes speaking,' _voxita vo cudasarei_ (141v) 'would your Lordship be so kind as to give to me that which remains of your drink.' The particle _soba_ means 'side' and governs the genitive; e.g., _fito no soba vo fanaruru_ 'he separates himself from the side of another.' The particle _maie_ means 'before' and governs the genitive; e.g., _fito no maie vo tovoru_ 'I pass in front of someone else,' _cacugo no maie_ {158} (141v) 'according to ones disposition,' _funbet no maie_ (141v) 'as I believe, or think, or according to the sense (_iuxta sensum_).' The particle _mavari_ means 'around' and governs the genitive; e.g., _iglesia no mavari ni tçuchi vo nague sutçuru na_ 'do not put earth around the church.' The particle _uchi_ means 'within,' and the noun which precedes it must be in the genitive; e.g., _iglesia no uchi_ 'in the church,' _ano fito va, fito no uchi de va nai_ 'that man is not among men,' that is (51 to say 'he is not a man,' _futacuchi cúta coto va, cúta uchi de va nai_ (142v)[144] 'to eat two mouthfuls is not to eat.' The particle _foca_ means 'outside,' and the genitive is placed before it; e.g., _igelsia no foca ni_ 'outside the church,' _foca ie iqe_ 'go out, or go outside.' Sometimes the genitive particle is replaced by _iori_; e.g., _Deus vonago ichinin iori foca tçucuri tamavanu_ (142v)[145] 'God did not create but one woman,' that is to say 'he created just one,' _Tengu fito ni acu vo susumuru iori foca va, nai_ (142v) 'the Devil does nothing if he is not persuaded by man to sin,' _gox[vo] vo tasucaru tame baptismo vo sazzucaru iori foca bechi no michi ga nai_ 'there is no other way to save men than by baptism,' that is to say 'without baptism we cannot be saved.' _Deus no gracia iori foca_ 'without the grace of God.' The particle _naca_ means 'in the middle.' It is used when the material is either dense or defuse; e.g., _qi no naca ni_ 'in the wood,' _fito no naca ni_ 'among the men.' The particle _nacaba_ means 'in the midst of things' when referring to a sequence. It follows the genitive; e.g., _dangui no nacaba ni_ 'in the midst of the sermon,' _sore vo qijte, nacaba va vosore; nacaba va aqirete ita_ (145v) 'hearing that, he feared and was afraid,' that is to say 'he spent most of his time being afraid.' The particle _ato_ means 'behind' and governs the genitive; e.g., _sonata no ato cara mair[vo]_ 'I shall come after you' that is to say 'I shall follow you.' The particle _vaqi_ means 'near' and governs the genitive; e.g., _Pedro no vaqi_ 'near Peter,' _misa no vaqi_ 'the mass is ended,' _cono vaqi_ 'in the last few days.' All of these adverbs require after them the cases that are required by the verb which follows. {159} _Adverbs of Interrogation and Response_[146] There are many ways to ask 'why?' or 'for what reason[?]'; e.g., _najeni_[?], _najoni_[?], _nani xini?_, _nani tote ca?_, _nani no iuie ni?_, _nanto xita coto ni?_, _nani no xisai ni iotte?_. The question 'how?' is said; _nanto xite?_, _nanto i[vo] ni_[?], _icani to xite?_ The answer is 'because' or 'for the reason that'; e.g., _sono iuie va_, _najeni to iúni_. 'Because' is also said; _tocoro de_, _fodo ni_, _ni iotte_, or _sacai ni_. The first expresses (52 the greatest degree of causality, the second not so much, and the third the least. _Uie va_ means 'since (_cum_ or _si quidem_)'; e.g., _toganai uie va qizzucai ga nai_ (40v)[147] 'I am not afraid because I have no fault.' The same meaning is achieved by the particle _cara_; e.g., _cai[vo] ni iro vo misuru cara va; cacusu coto va iranu_ 'since you have thus shown your feelings (_iro_), you can't hide them.' 'Since (_si quidem_)' means approximately the same as _toqi va_ and _xicaru toqi va_. _Sari nagara_ means 'but,' _sari tote va_ means 'until,' _saru tote va_ means 'since the thing is this way,' _saru tote va, qicoienu coto gia_ 'since it is so, it is unbearable.' _Adverbs of Time_[148] One asks 'when' with _itçu_ or _itçugoro_. One asks 'from what day' with _icca saqi_ or _icca maie_, 'from what month' with _icutçuqi saqi_, and 'from what year' with _nannen maie_. Usually _ni_ is added when it is required by the verb, and the interrogatives _ca_ or _zo_ are always put at the end of the sentence, with _zo_ preferred. One answers 'now' with _ima_ or _tada ima_, and 'already' with _m[vo]_, e.g., _m[vo] iqe_ 'be already gone!' 'Sometimes' is said with _toqi ni iotte_ or _jibun ni iotte_. 'Afterwards' is _nochi_. _Sore cara_ or _sore iori_ means 'after that,' _core cara_ or _core iori_ means 'after this,' and _are iori_ or _are cara_ means 'after that.' 'Immediately' is said with _iagate_. 'Afterwards' or 'again' is _ima iori nochi_, _ima iori xite va_, or _ima iori igo_. 'This morning' is said with _qesa_. _Connichi_ or _qio_ [_qiô_] is 'today,' and _asu_ or _miônichi_ [_miónichi_][149] is 'tomorrow.' 'Tomorrow morning' is _asa_, _axitatô_, or {160} _asatocu_, and 'tomorrow night' is _mionia_ [_mi[vo]ia_]. 'Before' is _ijen_ or _saqi ni_. 'Yesterday' is _qinô_ or _sacujit_. 'The day before yesterday' is _vototoi_ or _futçuca saqi ni_. 'Several days in the past' is _cono gi[vu]_. _Cono fodo_ and _xenjit_ have the same meaning, as does _xendo_. _Condo_ means 'several days in the future.' 'The day after tomorrow' is _asatte_ or _miógonichi_. 'Three days hence' is _xiasatte_ or _miómiógonichi_. _Qiônen_ [_Qionen_] or _cozo_ means 'last year.' 'This year' is _cotoxi_. 'Two years ago' is _vototoxi_ or _votodoxi_. 'Three years ago' is _sanuruvotodoxi_ [_sannuru votodoxi_].[150] 'Immediately' is _tachimaqi_ [_tachimachi_] (53 or _socuij ni_ [_socuji ni_]. _Sunavachi_ is also 'immediately.' _Tanteqi_ is 'in a moment.' _Itçumade?_ means 'until when?' _Itçumademo_ means 'always.' _Itçu cara_ means 'after what time.' _Itçu iori_ means 'from what time.' _Adverbs of Negation_[151] _Iia_ or _iia_ [_iia iia_][152] means 'not.' _Só devanai_ means 'it is not so.' _Iccana_ or _iccanagueni_ means 'by no means,' _iume iume_ means 'not even in a dream,' _sarani_, _ichiien_, _catçute_, or _catçute motte_ means 'in no way,' and _io_, _iomo_, or _iomo iomo_ means 'without thinking'; e.g., _catçute mairu mai_ 'in no way shall I come,' _iomo só va gozaru mai_ (117v) 'it will in no way come to mind why it will be so.' When affirmative verbs are added to these adverbs they become negative; e.g., _iomo iomo to m[vo]xitareba vo mairi atta_ (117v) 'although you said you would not go, you went,' _io mairó_ 'in no way shall I go.' _Adverbs of Affirmation_[153] _Nacanaca_ means 'it is so,' _vó_ means 'so,' when one agrees. _Gueni_ or _gueni gueni_ means 'it is thus'; e.g., _gueni gueni só mo aró_ 'without doubt the situation is thus.' _Chódo_ means 'at all.' _Sai[vo]ni_, _sono bun_, _sono gotoqu_, _s[vo] de gozaru_, _sore sore_, _mass[vo] gia_, or _xicato_ means 'it is so.' _Mottomo_ means that something is reasonably said. _Guioi no gotoqu_ means 'as your Lordship believes, or says.' _Mochiron_ indicates that a thing does not come in to doubt or discussion. _Nacanaca naru_ {161} _coto de gozaranu_ means 'truly it is not possible.' _Nacanaca no coto_ indicates a thing with which it is possible to agree. _Macotoni_ means 'truly,' as does _xinjit_ or _xinjitni_. _Xeimon_ means 'I affirm by oath.' _Isasaca_ or _isasaca motte_ means 'not even a little,' and _issai_ or _ixxet_ means 'in no way, or by no means,' and when these particles are added to the affirmative they mean 'truly.' (54 _Comparative Adverbs_[154] _Iori_, _iori mo_, and _iori mo navo_ mean 'more' in a comparison. The person compared is in the nominative case and the person to whom he is compared is in the ablative with one of the particles which we have listed above; e.g., _Pedro va juan iori mo gacuxó de gozaru_ 'Peter is wiser than John,' _soco ie noboru iori va; mairanu ga maxi gia_ 'it is better not to go than to climb up there.' _Gotoqu_, _mama_, and _i[vo]ni_ are adverbs of similitude (_adverbia similitudinis_) and require the genitive for the thing with which the comparison is made. If the particle is preceded by a verb, no genitive is required; e.g., _no iama ie nari tomo qitai mama ni qite, nurureba, nugui suteraruru_ (124v) 'if they were to go to the mountains or the plains wearing such clothes as they want to wear, they will have to take them off when they become wet on account of the water.' _Vomô mama ni, vomô gotoqu_, and _vomô i[vo]ni_, mean 'as I think,' _cono mi no mama ni_ 'according to his desires, or his pleasure.' _Fodo_ means 'to such a degree as (_tantum_),' or 'just as (_quasi_)'; e.g., _qifen ano fito fodo no gacuxó de gozaru_[155] 'you are as wise as he,' _fara ga cudaru fodo ioi_ 'he will recover as soon as he has a bowel movement,' _michi vo aruqu fodo cutabiruru_ (123v) 'as I walk so I get tired,' _acai fodo ioi_ 'the redder the better,' _xinuru fodo no vazzurai de va nai_ 'this disease is not strong enough to cause death,' _fune ni mesaruru fodo naraba vare mo norózu_ (124) 'if Your Lordship would take up the task of boarding the ship, so shall I,' _tamexi mo nai fodo ni atta to m[vo]su_ (124v) 'they say it was as if it had never been,' _voquru fodo araba sore ie mair[vo]zu_ (124) 'if I am able to arrive at the state where I can get up from bed, I shall come to you,' _chicara no fodo vo mite_ 'seeing the degree of his strength,' _fodo nó tçuita_ 'he arrived in {162} an instant,' _core fodo_ 'as this,' _sore fodo_ 'as that,' _are fodo_ 'as that,' _vovoi fodo_ 'while more,' _sucunai fodo_ 'while less.' (55 _Superlative Adverbs_[156] _Uie_ means 'the highest'; e.g., _christian no voxiie va izzure iori mo uie de gozaru_ 'the doctrine and faith of Christianity are supreme, or above all,' _cono saqe no uie va nai_ 'there is no better wine than that.' _Ichi_ or _daiichi_ means 'supreme, or unique'; e.g., _gacux[vo] no uchi ni Sancto Thomas daiichi de gozatta_ 'among wise men Saint Thomas was the best,' _core va are iori uie_ 'this is superior to that.' The particle _xita_ has the opposite meaning of 'inferior, or the lowest'; e.g., _xiqitai va anima iori xita de gozaru_ (141) 'the body is inferior to the soul.' _Adverbs of Intensity and Exaggeration_[157] _Ichidan_, _chicagoro_, and _icc[vo]_ mean 'intensely (_valde_)'; e.g., _chicagoro no vo cocoro gaqe de gozaru_ 'this is the greatest care and diligence,' _sore va icco varui coto gia_ 'this is extremely bad.' _Bexxite_ means 'chiefly,' _tori vaqe_ means 'especially,' _coto no foca_ means 'rarely, or extraordinarily,' _icanimo_ means 'intensely,' and _amarini_ means 'too much.' As has been said, adverbs are formed from adjectives according to the rules above, and these adverbs mean adverbially what the adjectives mean adjectivally; e.g., _fucai_ means 'deep,' and _fucó_ means 'deeply.' _Icani mo xizzucani_ means 'extremely quietly,' _tani coto ni_ means 'extraordinarily,' and _xitatacani_ or _guiósanni_ means 'in a way that is to be feared' that is to say 'too much.' See the dictionary.[158] _Accumulative Adverbs_[159] _Voxinabete_ means 'universally'; _sôbet_ means 'generally,' as do _tçuneni_ and _sojite_ [_sôjite_]; _feijeini_ means 'regularly'; and _voioso_, _tabun_, _vocata_, _ioppodoni_ mean 'for the most part,' and _qeccu_ or _caiette_ (56 means 'after all.' _Tennen_ means 'perhaps,' as do _xijen_ and _icasama_. _Sadamete_ means 'probably,' _canarazu_ means 'without doubt,' _moxi xijien_ [_moxi xijen_] means 'perhaps,' _x[vo]tocu_ means 'naturally,' _jinen_ {163} means 'by chance,' _xidai vidai ni_ or _jen jen ni_ means 'gradually,' and _vonozzucara_ means 'by oneself.' _Adverbs that Conclude and Claim Attention_[160] _Ficqi[vo]_ and _tçuini_ mean 'finally, or in conclusion.' _Tçug[vo]_ means 'in summary.' _N[vo] n[vo]_ means 'is it not so?' e.g., _n[vo] n[vo] icani qicaxeruru ca?_ 'do you hear me then?' _Moxi_[161] means 'ho there (_heus_),' but it is an elegant word; e.g., _moxi Padre sama_ 'ho there, Reverend Father.' _Iare_ also means 'ho there,' but with inferiors; e.g., _iare tar[vo] quaja to iieba_ 'saying "Ho there, Tar[=o]kaja."' _Iai_ means 'ho there' with very low people; e.g., _iai sochi ga motta mono va nani zo?_ 'hey! what is it that you bring?' _Ia_ has the same meaning; e.g., _ia vo tono bara domo va nani vo savagu zo?_ (128) 'hey! you soldiers and good men, why do you quarrel?' The particle _ai_ has the same meaning but it is placed after the sentence; e.g., _izzure mo mina qiqe ai_ (129) 'hey! all of you listen.' The particles _ca_ and _zo_, as has been said above, are used as interrogatives. The particles _ia_ and _caia_ have the same function but they are more humble; e.g., _are va tare caia?_ 'who is he?', _core ia_[?] 'this?', _io fuqete tare ca va tazzuneô zo?_ (89v) 'when it becomes late at night, who will be able to visit?', _sore de ar[vo] ca to iú coto gia_ 'I said, "will it be this?"' _No?_ asks for agreement; e.g., _gozar[vo] ca no?_ 'will he come?'[162] _mair[vo] to voxerareta no?_ [... _vôxerareta no?_] 'did he say that he will come?' _no Pedro dono?_ 'isn't that so, Peter?' _Na_[?] means the same thing, but it is used with inferiors; e.g., _s[vo] qiita na?_ 'didn't you hear so?' Sometimes, in a sentence containing _zo_, _baxi_, which is a dubitive particle (_particula dubitandi_), is placed; e.g., _nanto xita xisai de baxi gozaru zo?_ (122v)[163] 'for what reason did this happen?', _sate nanto iú voqiacu de baxi gozaru zo_[?] (123) 'what is the name of your guest?', _goiô baxi gozaru ca?_ 'isn't there something of use to you?' _Io_ and _zo_ strengthen or give cadence to the sentence; e.g., _caita zo_ {164} 'he truly wrote,' _maitta io_ 'he certainly came,' _sono toqi vare_ (57 _va ichi dan varui tçucai vo xiraruite gozaru io_ [... _siaruite_ ...] (95) 'at that time I was following bad advice.' _Bacari_ means 'only, or in only one way,' _sore ni caguitte_ means 'that only,' _core ni caguirazu_ 'not only this.' _Bacari_ also means 'more or less'; e.g., _fiacu bacari_ 'there were a hundred,' _fiacunin bacari corosareta_ 'about one hundred men were killed.' _Nó_, _nóte_, _naqu xite_, and _naqute_ mean 'without'; e.g., _raxxi mo nó_ 'without reason or order,' _cacugo nó_ 'without any preparation.' The adverbs of sound (_adverbia sonus_) are many and vary in accordance with the way that the Japanese perceive the sound. The particle _to_ is added to them; e.g., _va va to xite_ 'vociferously saying _wa wa_,' and if they add _meqi,u_, it means to make even a louder noise; e.g., _va meqi,u_ 'to shout saying _wa_.' _The Case Prepositions_[164] _Tame_ or _ni_ means 'concerning';[165] e.g., _sonata no tame_ 'for you (_tibi_).' It governs the genitive which precedes it; _nan no tame_ 'for what,' _nani ni naru ca?_ 'for what is it?', _nani ni xô ca?_ 'what do you do that for?', _nani no iô ni tatçu ca?_ (171v) 'for what is it needed, or useful?', _maitte no iô va?_ (130) 'what's the use of going?' _Tai xite_ means 'on account of' or 'against'; e.g., _tengu ni tai xite teqito_ 'to fight against the devil, or resist him,' _Deus ni tai xite cuguio vo coraiuru_ 'I endure the pain (_labor_) because of God.' _Uie iori_ also means 'because'; e.g., _von jifi no uie iori_ (167) 'because of his mercy.' _Ni iotte_ signifies the reason for which; e.g., _Deus iori fito no jento acu ni iotte go fempô vo ataiesaxerareozu_ [... _ataiesaxerareôzu_] (146v) 'God gives to man according to his virtues and vices.' This form is derived from the verb _iori,u_. _Ni tçuite_ means 'around, or about' and is derived from the verb _tçuqi,u_; e.g., _core ni tçuite_, _core ni tçuqi_, or _core ni tçuqete_ means 'about that.' _Sono gui ni voite va zonjenu_ (120) 'I do not know anything about this matter,' _Vôxe va mottomo naredomo vagami ni totte va canai gatai_ (120) 'Your Lordship speaks well but what concerns me is that (58 {165} it is difficult to do.' _Dai quan ni itatte va ichinin bacari sadame io_ (120)[166] 'decide that which concerns the steward only.' _Itatte_ and _totte_[167] are the gerunds of verbs just as the preceding. They also say _Padre coto va_ 'the things belonging to the priest,' _varera coto va_ 'about my things, or those things which belong to me.' _Xitagatte_ or _xitag[vo]te_ means 'near' and is the gerund of the verb _xitagari,u_ or _xitagai,ó_. As with the other verbs it governs the dative case; e.g., _guioi ni xitagatte_ or _xitag[vo]te_ 'according to Your Lordship's understanding.' _Xidai_ has the same meaning; e.g., _conata xidai_ 'according to your wishes.' Sometimes it is added to the roots of verbs; e.g., _mairi xidai_ 'according to when he comes, or according to his coming.' _Ni_ indicates the place in which. _Ni voite_ has the same meaning but indicates permanence; e.g., _fatto va fuximi ni voite vôxeidasareta_ 'he established the law while he was in Fushimi,' _Bungo funai ni itatte_ 'in the city of Funai in the kingdom of Bungo,' _iglesia ni uoru_ 'he is in church.' _De_ indicates the place of an action; e.g., _michi de Pedro ni v[vo]ta_ 'I met Peter in the street.' The same particle _de_, together with _vo motte_, indicate the instrument with which an action is done; e.g., _bo vo motte Pedro vo uchi coroita_ 'he killed Peter with a stick,' _Padre sama catarareta de navo qicoieta_ 'from what the Reverend Father told me, it became easier to understand,' _necqi de xinda_ 'he died of a fever.' _Cara_ or _iori_ indicate the place from which; e.g., _iglesia cara_ 'from church.' They also say _fune cara maitta_ 'he came by ship' and _cachi cara maitta_ 'he came on foot.' _Fune de maitta_ is the same as _fune cara maitta_ and _fune ni notte maitta_. _Fana cara me cara miguruxij mono gia_ 'it is unpleasant to the nose and the eyes.' _Iori_ indicates the place through which; e.g., _sama iori faitta_ 'he entered through the window.' _Tomo ni_ means 'at the same time'; e.g., _sonata to tomo ni mair[vo]zu_ I shall go at the same time as you,' _m[vo]su to tomo ni_ 'at the same time as he spoke.' _Ie_ indicates the place to which; e.g., _achi ie mair[vo]_ 'I shall go directly to court (_curia_),' _miiaco no cata ie noboru_ 'he went up to court' and also _miiaco no f[vo] ie noboru_. They also say _miiaco no iori_, {166} _miiaco sama_, or _miiaco no gotoqu noboru_, but this is not a good way of speaking and is more characteristic of a rustic (_rusticus_). _De_ indicates the material from which; e.g., _tçuchi de cavara_ (59 _vo tçuquru_ 'to make bricks out of earth or mud,' _nande core vo tçuquru ca?_ 'from what is this made?' _Uie_ means 'concerning'; e.g., _zuibun codomo no uie vo fito ni mo naxi marasuru i[vo]ni to cocoro gaqe marasuru_ 'with great diligence I took care of my sons so as to make them men.' _Sonata no fiquan no vo saiban mesare io_ [... _no uie vo_ ...] (141) 'take care of your servants.' _Made_ means 'until'; _asu made_ 'until morning,' _inochi vo uxin[vo] made aru mai_ 'he will not lose his life, or he will not arrive at the loss of his life,' _sore made vomoi mo ioranu gui gia_ 'it will not come to my mind,' _cocoro zaxi areba canavanu made mo xei vo iruru_ 'when something is wished for, one uses his strength up to the point of impossibility,' _m[vo]su made mo nai_ 'it is not necessary to say,' _cono tocoro made maitta_ 'I came to this place.' _Conjunction and Separation_[168] _To_ means 'and'; e.g., _Pedro to juan to Nagasaqi ie ita_ 'Peter and John went to Nagasaki,' _core to, are to vo toru_ 'I take this and that.' _Mo_ has the same meaning; e.g., _Pedro mo juan mo Nagasaqi cara modotta_ 'Peter and John returned from Nagasaki,' _naqu mono mo ari, varó mono mo aru_ 'there are those who cry and those who laugh. _Mo_ is often placed before negative verbs; e.g., _nanigoto mo gazaranu ca?_ 'is that not something new?' _Mata_ means 'and,' whether it is found between nouns or verbs. _Ca_ means 'or'; e.g., _Pedro ca; juan ca coi to iie_ 'tell Peter or John to come.' _Arui va_ also means 'or'; e.g., _arui va Pedro, arui va juan_ 'either Peter or John,' _arui va iomu, arui va caqu_ 'I either read or write.' _Moxi va_ means 'if in fact,' and it is used in the middle of a sentence; e.g., _moxi va cane ga nai naraba_ 'if in fact you were to have no money.' _Mata va_ is used to bind the sentences more tightly together (_ad orationem contexturam_). It means 'besides that, or besides'; e.g., (60 _arui va iamai ga vocoru ca, mata va isogui no fumi qitaru ca etc._ [... _ca_, etc.] (135) 'either some sickness occurs, or besides that some urgent letter arrives.' {167} _Xicareba_ means 'since things are this way,' _sari nagara_ means 'but,' _s[vo] aru tocoro de_ means 'since it is thus,' _saraba_ means 'since it is so,' and _sareba sareba_ means 'since then.' _Ca?_ means 'if'; e.g., _maitta ca mi io_ 'see if he came, or went,' _maitta ca xiranu_ 'I don't know if he went.' _Iara_ means 'if,' but distributively (_divisive_); e.g., _fito iara chicux[vo] iara xiranu_ 'I don't know if it's man or beast,' _nani iara to m[vo]xita_ 'I wonder what he said.' Some disjunctive and emphatic particles are formed from _nanica_ and _tocacu_ with the addition of other particles; e.g., _nani ia ca ia?_ 'which thing?' The same meaning is expressed by _nani iara ca iara?_ and _nanto iara cato iara?_ _Nanto xite_, _cato xite_ means 'how,' _nanto mo cato mo_ means 'in no way,' and _nani mo ca mo_ means 'nothing.' _Nanigoto mo cagoto mo, mina içtuvari naru zo_ [... _itçuvari_ ...] 'when all is said and done they are all lies.' _Nani no ca no_, and _nanto xite_, _cato xite_ are ways to excuse oneself. _Nani no ca no to iúte_ means 'saying this and that.' _Domo como_ means 'in whatever way it is,' as does _d[vo] xite mo c[vo] xite mo_. _D[vo] xite c[vo] xite_ means 'doing this and that differently.' _D[vo] xô c[vo] xô_ means 'I shall do this and that.' _Tomo cacumo_ means 'all the same,' as do _toni cacuni_, _tonimo cacunimo_, and _totemo cacutemo_. _Core to ij; care to ij_ means 'saying this and that, or making excuses.' _Care core_ means 'this and that,' _coco caxico_ means 'here and there (_hic and illic_).' _Vomoxirô, vocaxu_[169] [_vomoxirovocax[vu]_] is used when accommodating oneself almost to flattery. If the particle _motte_ is added to the particles _catçute_, _isasaca_, _tomoni_, _nani_, and _nani nani iori_ [... and _nani iori_] it adds strength and force; e.g., _catçute motte s[vo] aru mai_ 'the situation will not be this way at all.' _Interjections_[170] _Sate_, _sate sate_, [_satemo_,] and _satemo satemo_ are interjections of admiration; e.g., _satemo Deus no voqinaru vonjifi cana_ 'oh! great mercy of God!' {168} _Avare_ is the interjection for pity; e.g., _avare mutçucaxij io no naca cana_ 'oh! world replete with misery!' _Ha!_[171] is the interjection of penetence; e.g., _ha faxi demo_ (61 _vomoxiroi ga; tocoro ni iote qicoie canuru_ [... _ni iotte_ ...] (127v) 'ah, the workmanship of the sound and the harmony of the singing is most graceful, but it is not able to be heard well.' _Iara!_ is the interjection for joy and pain; e.g., _iara iara medeta ia_ (128) 'oh! how much I rejoice.' _Ia_ is also used; e.g., _satemo iiaxii iatçubara ia_ (129)[172] 'oh! how vile and despicable,' _gongo d[vo]dan fuxigui na xisai cana_ (128v) 'oh! how rare and ridiculous a reason.' _Iei_ is the interjection of wonder; e.g., _iei Padre sama cochi gozaru io_ 'oh! here is the Reverend Father.' _Hat_ is the interjection that indicates that one is repentent; e.g., _Benqei core vo mite hat coto naxi to zonjite, sono mama niva ni b[vo] vo voraxi,_ etc. (127v) 'Benkei seeing this,' etc.[173] _The Syntax and the Cases that are Governed by the Verbs_[174] The nominative is placed at the beginning of the sentence and the verb at the end: the remaining elements are placed according to the cadence (_cadentia_) of the sentence; e.g., _Pedro va Nagasaqi de xutrai xita iqi iqi ni tçuite juan vo coroita_ 'Peter killed John because of an argument that took place in Nagasaki.' In certain sentences of serious import a substitute verb (_verbum suppositum_) is placed after the verb, but this is rare; e.g., _tare mo canavanu futari no qimi ni tçuc[vo]ru coto va_ (84)[175] 'no one can serve two masters.' In this sentence the substitute verb is _tçuc[vo]ru coto va_. _Core ni iote tanomi tatematçuru itçumo virgen_ [_Core ni iotte_ ...] (84) 'therefore I pray to the ever virgin [Mary].' Clauses (_orationes_) in the absolute or permissive subjunctive, infinitive, conditional, and causative are always placed before clauses that are in the indicative or imperative, even if it does not make sense {169} in Latin or any other European language; e.g., _achi cara tomeraruru tomo; tomaru na_ 'do not stay, even if they want you to remain,' _sore vo qiitareba, fara vo tatete modotta_ 'when he heard that, he came back very angry,' _taxicani uqetamotta ni iotte coso, móxi ague maraxitare_ 'I listened carefully, and then I spoke,' _fai[vo] gozatta raba vo mexi vo xinjô mono vo_ 'if you had come earlier, I would have offered you food.' When there are two verbs in the same sentence, the first will (62 be in the gerund form and the other will be in the tense that is required by the sense of the sentence; e.g., _core vo totte giqi ni mi ga comono ni vataxe_ 'take this and give it to my servant at once.' When there are two or more clauses which have the same subject or tense, only the last verb will be in the tense that is required by the sense of the sentence. The other verbs will be in the root form, while still others will be in the gerund in _e_ form; e.g., _tovazunba cotaiezu, voxe raba tçuxxinde qiqi_ [_tovaz[~u]ba_ ... _vôxe_ ... _qiqe_] (85v)[176] 'if they don't ask don't answer: if they speak listen carefully,' _Deus no vo coto vo macoto ni uqe, go voqite mo camavaide, sono mama inferno ni vochita_ 'he did not believe in God, and he did not respect His precepts; therefore, he fell into Hell.' Verbs are always placed in the third person to indicate honor. No one honors himself except the king when he is speaking of himself; e.g., _iorocobi ni voboximesu_ 'I am enjoying it very much.' When there are many adjectives in a sentence, they will all be in the adverbial form except the last; e.g., _qe nang[vo], iro curô, icanimo utçucuxij mono_ [_qe nag[vo]_ ...][177] 'a very beautiful person with long, black hair.' The particle _to_ is placed before verbs of understanding, believing, and hearing, takes the place of the verb 'to be,' and means 'that'; _fito to zonjita_ 'I thought, or believed that he was a man,' _qixó vo jennin to vomovô ca?_ [_qixo_ ... _vomov[vo] ca?_] 'shall I believe that you are a saint?' _Amata no fito xini no fonovo ni moiuru vo misaxerareô_ (20)[178] 'you {170} will see many men burning in the flames of indignation.' Here one has replaced _to_ with _moiuru vo_, which is a substitute verb. When _mo_ is added to _to_ it strongly affirms what is said; e.g., _mairó to mo_ 'I shall certainly go, or I will be going.' The particle _to_, in the first meaning, is sometimes replaced by _i[vo]ni_; e.g., _agueta i[vo]ni gozaru_ 'they say that he offered it,' _ica i[vo]na fito to va xiranu_ 'I did not know what kind of a man he was.' Sometimes the substantive verb takes the place of the particle _to_; e.g., _mairó de gozatta_ 'he said that he would come,' _xô de va naqeredomo_ 'although I did not say that I would do it.' _Qiuzo core vo mite, ima vo saigo no coto de areba_ (97)[179] 'seeing this, Kiso believed that the hour of death was present, etc.' Here the substantive verb replaces _to_ and serves as an active verb governing the accusative _ima vo_, which also replaces _to_. The particles _s[vo]na_ and _guena_ mean 'it seems.' _S[vo]na_ is added to the roots of verbs; e.g., _deqi_ (63 _s[vo]na_ 'it seems that it is finished.' If a substantive verb is placed after this particle the _a_ is changed to _i_; e.g., _deqi s[vo]ni gozaru_ 'it seems that he will finish,' _deqi s[vo]ni mo zonjenu_ 'I believe that it will not be finished.'[180] _S[vo]na_ is also added to adjectives in _i_, and when it is the _i_ is lost; e.g., _io s[vo]na_ 'it seems good, or it seems that it is good,' _xigue s[vo]na_ 'it seems dense,' and _aiau s[vo]na_ 'it seems that I am in danger.' If this particle is added to adjectives in _na_, the _na_ is lost; e.g., _aqiraca s[vo]na_ 'it seems that it is clear.' The particle _guena_ is added to the nouns and verbs previously formed; e.g., _maitta guena_ 'I believe that he has come.' If a substantive verb is added to this particle the _a_ changes to _i_; e.g., _maitta gueni gozaru_ 'I believe that he has come.' _S[vo]na_ means 'it seems,' and _guena_ means 'I believe,' but either of these forms may occasionally be used in any of the examples given. When a sentence has two preterits, the first may be in the preterit and the second in the future; e.g., _qesa cara s[vo] vôxerareta raba mo faia de maraxô_ 'If you would have said that this morning, I would have already left.' When reporting what someone else has said, it is said this way; {171} _Padre mósaruru va: iagate sonata ie mairó to m[vo]saruru_ 'the priest said that he was going to come.' Sometimes when one is excusing himself he will use _no_ in place of _to_; e.g., _asu no, raiguat no, nando to noburu na_ 'don't spread around that it is tomorrow, next month, or whenever.' When _vo_ follows _n_ it loses its _v_; e.g., _go von o uqetatematçutta_ 'I received benefits.'[181] Adverbs are always placed before their verbs except for the adverbs of time which are placed at the beginning of the sentence; e.g., _sore vo qijte iccó xicari maraxita_ 'hearing that he was very angry,' _qiô nen espana cara vatatta toqi_ [_qio nen_ ...] 'when I sailed from Spain last year.' Each verb requires before it a subject in the nominative case, either expressed or understood; e.g., _vare iqe_ or _iqe_ 'come!', where the _vare_ is understood. In some sentences this rule is not respected; e.g., _xisai voba core ni mósare maraxozu_ [... _maraxôzu_] 'he will explain, or give the reason for this.' In the following case we do not see the nominative, but rather _are ni va_, which is in the dative or ablative; _are ni va, navo voixri atta_ [... _voxiri atta_] 'he knows better.' In this sentence the _are ni va_ ought to be in the nominative. _Cacaru vo ni va cogane no cusari vo icusugi mo tçuqeta dógu de gozaru_ (138v) 'for a necklace (_torques_) he had a chain of gold with many links.' _Core ni va gozonji aru mai_ 'Your Lordship does not know (64 about this.' Here the _core ni va_ replaces the accusative which is governed by _zonji,uru_. The impersonal verb or the infinitive requires a nominative before it; e.g., _Pedro va maitta to mósu_ 'they say that Peter came.' The verb _iri,u_, which means 'to need,' governs two nominatives, one for the thing and the other for the person in need; e.g., _vatacuxi va cono cane ga iru_ 'I need, or I have a necessity for this money.' It also governs the dative for the person; e.g., _sono tame ni va cane ga iranu_ 'he does not need any gold, or money.' The active verb requires the accusative before it; e.g., _cane vo motanu_ 'I have no money.' Certain _cobita_ or _coie_ nouns, as we have said above, are borrowed from Chinese and govern the same cases as the Japanese verbs to which {172} they correspond; e.g., _niva vo qenbut no aida ni mexi vo coxiraie io_ 'prepare the food while we visit the garden.' The noun _qenbut_ requires the accusative _niva vo_. The same is true with _fito ni guenzan suru_ (97) which is like _fito ni vó_ 'I meet the man.' The _guenzan_ governs the dative just as does the verb _ai,ó_. When a borrowed word (_vocabulum cobitum_)[182] is a compound of two elements it is possible to determine if it is a verb by seeing if the first part has the meaning of a verb; e.g., _jóten_ is a verb which means 'to ascend to heaven' with the _j[vo]_ meaning to 'go up.' _Tenj[vo]_ is a noun in which the _j[vo]_ is placed after the _ten_ and means 'heaven.' The passive verb has the ablative for its agent (_persona agente_); e.g., _Pedro cara corosareta_ 'he was killed by Peter,' but it is better that it govern the dative; e.g., _Pedro ni corosareta_, or _Pedro va nusubito ni cane vo torareta_ 'Peter had his money stolen by thieves.' There are also certain neutral verbs which govern the accusative as if they were active verbs; e.g., _xiqitai vo fanaruru_ 'to depart from the body, or to die,' _axi vo vazzuró_ 'to have a pain in the foot.' This is also true for _nigue,uru_ 'to escape,' _nogare,uru_ 'to evade,' _de,uru_ 'to go out,' _noqe,uru_ 'to retreat,' _tovori,u_ 'to go across,' _nori,u_ 'to sail,' as in _caix[vo] vo noru_ 'I sail the sea,' _iuqi,u_ 'to walk,' as in _michi vo iuqu_ 'I walk the streets,' _vovari,u_ 'to finish,' _mairi,u_ as in _xogui vo mairu_ 'I play chess (_tabula laterucularia_),' _iorocobi,u_ as in _cocoro vo iorocobu_ 'I gladden the heart,' _abi,uru_, as in _mizzu vo abiru_[183] 'I wash myself with water, or I pour water on myself,' _avaremi,u_ 'I am sad,' (65 _canaximi,u_ 'I am unhappy,' _coie,uru_ 'to cross over,' _fabacari,u_ 'to be shy,' _facarai,[vo]_ 'to take care of,' _faxiri,u_ 'to sail,' as in _caix[vo], vo, faxiru_ [_caix[vo] vo faxiru_] 'I sail the sea,' _fagi,zzuru_ 'to be ashamed,' _fedate,tçuru_ 'to separate,' _fe,uru_ 'to spend,' as in _ficazu vo furu_ 'I spend many days,' [_fumaie,uru_ 'to be based on,' as in] _dori vo fumaiuru_ 'to be based on reason, or to have reason as a basis,' _itami,u_ 'to be sick,' _mavari,u_ 'to go around,' as in _cono cotovari vo móxi mavatta_ 'he goes around and spreads the news here and there,' _meguri,u_ has the same meaning, _nagusami,u_ 'to please,' as in _cocoro vo nagusamu_ 'I make the heart {173} happy,' _naqi,u_ 'to weep,' _tasucari,u_ 'to be saved,' as in _inochi vo tasucaru_ 'I am saved from the dangers of life,' or _gox[vo] vo tasucaru_ 'to be saved for a future life,' _tachi,tçu_ 'to go away from,' as in _tocoro vo tatçu_ 'I go away from this place,' _tomurai,ó_ 'to make a funeral for the dead,' _ucagai,ó_ 'to inquire with hesitation,' _voximi,u_ 'to value,' _urami,u_ 'to enquire,' _xinobi,u_ 'to wait in hiding, almost insidiously,' as in _fito no me vo xinobu_ 'I am careful lest someone see me.'[184] A few of these verbs which require the accusative of location admit to the use of the ablative with the particles _cara_ or _iori_; e.g., _tocoro vo tatçu_ is the same as _tocoro iori tatçu_ 'I leave the place.' There are some active verbs which require two accusative cases; e.g., _fori,u_, _daxi,u_, _fanaxi,u_, _tate,tçuru_. For example, _Pedro vo soco vo voi idaita_ 'they led Peter away from that place.' It is possible that it governs the ablative of location; e.g., _Pedro vo soco cara voi daita_ [... _voi idaita_]. Some take either the dative or the accusative; e.g., _fito vo_, or _fito ni fanare,uru_ 'to go away from the men,' _Deus vo_, or _Deus ni somuqi,u_ 'to offend God.' Verbs of this kind are generally verbs of fearing, offending, or going away.[185] Many verbs of helping, harming, damning, obeying, recognizing as superior or inferior, being subjugated, being victorious, and similar verbs govern the dative; e.g., _chiie saicacu i[vo]ni coieta_ 'he is superior to others in wisdom and industry.'[186] Verbs of giving, promising, and the like, govern the accusative for the thing and the dative for the person; e.g., _fito ni cane vo cururu_ 'to give money to someone.'[187] There are many verbs which permit before themselves the roots of other verbs without change, letting the roots take on the function of an infinitive; e.g., _qiqi fajime,uru_ 'to begin to hear.' Some of these verbs are: _nare,uru_ 'to become accustomed,' _tçuqe,uru_ with the same (66 meaning, _fate,tçuru_ 'to finish,' _narai,ó_ 'to learn,' _some,uru_ 'to begin,' _todoqe,uru_ 'to continue,' _ate,tçuru_ 'to direct,' _atari,u_ 'to find by chance,' _vaqe,uru_ 'to divide,' _cane,uru_ 'to be able to do with difficulty,' _soconai,[vo]_ 'to be wrong,' _sumaxi,u_ 'to finish,' _sugoxi,u_ 'to exceed,' _fague maxi,u_ {174} 'to work much and intensely,' _aqi,u_ 'to become bored,' _tai_ 'to want,' and _t[vo] mo nai_ 'to not want.'[188] If the roots of verbs are placed before certain adjectives ending in _i_, they form a kind of supine in _Tu_; e.g., _iomi iasui_ (92) 'easy to read (_facile lectu_),' etc. A numeral, if a substantive noun is placed after it, must be in the genitive case; e.g., _fitotçu no toga_ 'one sin.' The same is true with the particle _fodo_ when it means 'all'; e.g., _aru fodo no fito_ 'how so ever many.' The same is true with _iori_; e.g., _Nanban iori no mono_ 'things from Europe.' But this is a relative formation (_relatiuum_). The genitive is also required with nouns that mean much or little; e.g., _amata no fito_ 'many men.' These nouns are; _bechi_ 'other,' _fon_ 'one's own,' _cazucazu_ 'many,' _sama zama_ 'many ways.' _Iro iro_ 'much' is the same as _iorozzu_ and _izzure_. _Issai_ means 'all,' as does _vono vono_, _cotogotoqu_, and _reqi reqi_ for a noble person, _igue_ 'that which follows,' _nocori_ 'that which remains,' _itçumo_ 'always,' _itçumo no coto_ 'that which always is,' _tçune_ 'usual,' _ima_ 'now.' _Isasaca_ means 'a little,' as does _soto_ or _sucoxi_, _xotocu_ 'natural,' _sono foca_ 'others.'[189] These nouns are in the genitive if they are followed by a substantive noun, but when they are not followed by a noun they must be taken as adjectives. If they are followed by a verb rather than a noun, they do not require the genitive; e.g., _iorozzu danc[vo] xite iocar[vo]_ 'it will be good if you all confer.' Japanese Arithmetic and Numerical Matters Concerning Which Much Painful Labor Is Required There are two ways to count in Japanese.[190] The first is with the ordinary numerals which are called _iomi_. With these one is able to count to ten; e.g., _fitotçu_ means 'one,' which is also used to (67 say 'a little,' as in _saqe fitotçu nomaxite tam[vo]re_ 'give me a little sake to drink.' _Futatçu_ means 'two,' _mitçu_ 'three,' _iotçu_ 'four,' _itçutçu_ 'five,' _mutçu_ 'six,' _nanatçu_ 'seven,' _iatçu_ 'eight,' _coconotçu_ 'nine,' and _tovo_ {175} 'ten.' _Icutçu_ means 'what?' and is used when one does not have the proper number. The second way of counting is with the _coie_ vocables which are borrowed from Chinese. These numbers are not used by themselves to count to ten; but are rather used when counting things which are represented by Chinese, and not Japanese vocables. These bound numerals (_termini numerales_) are: _ichi_ 'one,' _ni_ 'two,' _san_ 'three,' _xi_ 'four,' _go_ 'five,' _rocu_ 'six,' _xichi_ 'seven,' _fachi_ 'eight,' _cu_ 'nine,' _jú_ 'ten.' The numbers eleven and above are made by joining these numbers together. Thus, 'eleven' is _j[vu]ichi_; _júni_ is 'twelve,' _júsan_ 'thirteen,' _júcu_ 'ninteen.' The tens are obtained by placing one of the numbers in front of ten; e.g., _nijú_ 'twenty,' _sanjú_ 'thirty,' _sanj[vu]ichi_ 'thirty-one,' _cuj[vu]_ 'ninety.' _Fiacu_ means 'hundred,' _fiacu ichi_ 'one hundred and one,' _fiacu j[vu]_ 'one hundred and ten,' _fiacu sanj[vu]_ 'one hundred and thirty,' _ni fiacu_ 'two hundred,' _sambiacu_ 'three hundred.' _Xen_ means 'thousand,' and _xen roppiacu sanj[vu] ichi_ is 'sixteen thirty-one.' By placing the Japanese numerals in front of Japanese vocables, which are called _iomi_, and by removing the _tçu_ of the aforementioned numbers before they are joined to nouns or verb stems, one is able to enumerate those things which are indicated by the vocable; e.g., _fito cotoba_ 'one word,' _futa cotovari_ 'two reasons,' _mi ami_ 'three nets, or three casts of the net,' _iocama_ 'to bake something four times in an oven,' _itçu caqe_ 'five attacks,' _mu casane_ 'six robes, or covers,' _nana catana_ 'seven wounds by a sword,' _ia catague_ 'eight loads,' _cu cavari_[191] 'nine changes,' _to cusa_ 'ten varieties.' Above the number ten this way of counting is not used, instead they say _iro júichi_ or _júichi no iro_ for 'eleven colors.' The interrogative is _icutçu_. If the thing being questioned is placed after the interrogative the particle _no_ is added; e.g., _itçucu no qi zo_ [_icutçu_ ...] 'how many trees are there?' To such a question the answer is _futatçu_ 'two,' _mitçu_ 'three,' etc. If the _tçu_ is removed from _icutçu_, one may place it in front of the thing being asked about; e.g., _icu tocoro_ 'how many places?' _icu toqi_ 'how many hours?'; also _fito fanaxi_ 'one sermon, or conversation,' _futa sugi_ 'two treads,' _io te_ 'four hands, as in a fight,' _itçu tçubu_ 'five grains,' _mu tocoro_ 'six (68 places,' _ia mavari_ 'six [eight] circuits,' _cu ninai_ 'nine loads, carried in {176} the Japanese fashion on a stick with the load in front,' _to vatari_ 'ten crossings.' It is possible to count the same thing in different ways. Thus, _mu tocoro_ is also _mutçu no tocoro_ and _tocoro mutçu_ 'six places.' _Fito ie_ means 'one plain thing,' _futa ie_ 'doubled, or duplicate,' _mi ie_ 'triplicate,' etc. In the same way one may add Chinese numerals to Chinese vocables, or _coie_. Usually in this way of counting a [phonetic] change occurs in either the number or the thing counted. Sometimes this change is in the first part, sometimes in the second, and at other times in both. This is particularly true with the first, second, third, sixth, tenth, and one hundredth numbers. With the items below, if nothing is noted, it is an indication that nothing is changed. When asking about men one says _icutari?_ 'how many men?' The response is made by adding _nin_ to the Chinese numeral; e.g., _ichi nin_ 'one man,' _ni nin_ 'two men,' _iottari_ 'four men'; this is because _xinin_ means 'dead person.' When asking about days one says _icca_ 'how many days?' The response is _fi fitoi_,[192] because _ichi nichi_ means 'one entire solar day,' _futçuca_ 'two days,' _micca_ 'three days,' _iocca_ 'four days,' _itçuca_ 'five days,' _muica_ 'six days,' _nanuca_ 'seven days,' _i[vo]ca_ 'eight days,' _coconoca_ 'nine days,' _toca_[193] 'ten days,' _fatçuca_ 'twenty days.' The remaining days are counted with _coie_ numerals. When counting nights _ia_ is added to the _coie_ numerals; e.g., _ichi ia_ 'one night,' _ni ia_ 'two nights,' etc. It is also possible to add _io_ which means 'night' in Japanese to the _iomi_ numeral; e.g., _icu io_ 'how many nights?' _futa io_ 'two nights,' _nana io_ 'seven nights,' etc. When enumerating the months of the year _guat_ is added to the _coie_ numeral, with the exception that the first month is called _xóguat_. The second is _niguat_, the third is _saguat_,[194] the fourth is _xiguat_, the eleventh is _ximotçuqi_, and the twelfth and last is _xi vasu_. When counting months the _tçu_ is removed from the _iomi_ numeral and the word _tçuqi_, which means 'month,' is added. _Icutçuqi?_ means 'how many months.' In response one says _fitotçuqi_ 'one month,' up to ten which is _totçuqi_, and from there on one counts with _coie_ numerals; e.g., _júichiguat_ 'eleven months.' If one wants to ask what month it is, {177} January, February, one says _nanguat_. The first month of the (69 Japanese year is March. In the enumeration of the years _nen_ is placed after the _coie_ numeral. In asking how many, _nen_ [_nan_] is placed before _nen_; e.g., _nannen_ 'how many years?' In response one says _ichinen_ 'one year,' _ionen_ 'four years,' _sanganen_ 'three years,' _s[vo] ionen_[195] 'three or four years,' _s[vo] xijúnen_ 'thirty or forty years,' _fatachi_ means 'twenty years of age,' as does _nij[vu]nen_, _nij[vu] no toxi_, or _toxi niju_. They ask with _icutoxi_ or _toxi icutçu_ 'how old are you.' They count the age of men and animals such as cattle and horses by adding _sai_ to the _coie_ numeral; e.g., _issai_ 'one,' _nisai_ 'two,' _sanzai_ 'three.' In counting turns (_visis_) _do_ is added to the _coie_ numerals; e.g., _nando_ 'how many times,' _ichido_ 'once,' _iodo_ 'four times,' _godo_ 'five times,' _sai san_ 'twice or thrice.' In the enumeration of ships _sô_ is placed after the _coie_ numeral; e.g., _nanzo_ [_nanzô_] 'how many ships,' to which one answers _issô_ 'one ship,' _niso_ [_nisô_] 'two,' _sanzô_ 'three,' _fassô_ 'eight,' _jússô_ [_jissô_] 'ten.' _Ichiren_ 'one string,' _niren_ 'two,' _saren_ 'three,' as in figs or pearls. When enumerating sermons, homilies (_tractatus_), or repetitions of things, _fen_ is placed after the numeral; e.g., _ippen_ 'one sermon,' _nifen_ 'two,' _sanben_ 'three,' _ave maria fiacu gojippen_ 'one hundred and fifty Hail Mary's.' In counting gold currency _momme_ is placed after the numeral; e.g., _ichi momme_ 'one _momme_,' _ni momme_ 'two,' _san mome_ [_san momme_] 'three.' When a _momme_ is divided into tenths it is called an _ippun_ [_fun_]. Thus, _ippun_ means one tenth part of a _momme_, _nifun_ means 'two tenths,' _gofun_ means half the basic unit (_media dragma_), _roppun_ means 'six tenths of a _momme_.' When the tenth part of a _momme_ is divided again into ten parts it is counted as _ichirin_, _nirin_, _sarin_, _iorin_, _gorin_, _rocurin_, _xichirin_, _fachirin_, and _curin_. Then comes _ippun_, which is one tenth of a _momme_. _Fiacu me_ means 'one hundred _momme_,' _fiacu ichi momme_ 'one hundred and one,' _icquan me_ means 'one thousand _momme_,' _jicquanme_ means 'ten thousand.' There are other coins of silver which are counted by placing _mai_ or _mon_ after the numeral; e.g., _ichi mon_ means one of {178} that unit, _ni mon_ is 'two,' _San mai_ is three hundred _mon_. They no longer produce a coin which is one half of the gold coin, but one thousand of these coins make _icquan_, while _jicquan_ is 'ten (70 thousand _quan_.'[196] _Core va ica fodo ni suru_ 'how much is this worth?' or _ica fodo ni uru_ 'at what price will you sell this?' _Ni momme suru_ 'I consider it worth two _momme_,' or _ni momme ni iasui_ 'I can sell this for more than two _momme_, or at two _momme_ this is cheap.' The enumeration of liquid measurements is done by placing the particle _xô_ in front of the liquid quantity; e.g., _ixxo_ [_ixxô_] 'one _xô_,' _nixo_ [_nixô_] 'two,' _sango_ [_sanjô_] 'three.' Ten _xô_ are _itto_ which is the particle _to_ placed after the numeral; _nito_ means 'twenty _xô_,' _sando_ 'thirty.' For one tenth of a _xô_ one places the particle _go_ after the numeral; e.g., _Ichigo_ 'one _go_,' _nigo_ 'two,' _sango_ 'three,' _ixxô gogo_ 'one and one half _xô_.' _Fatto_ is eighty _xô_. One hundred _xô_ make _ichi cocu_. By placing the _cocu_ after numerals one obtains _ni cocu_ 'two hundred _xô_,' _sangocu_ 'three hundred,' _jiccocu_ 'one thousand,' _xencocu_ 'ten thousand,' _ichi mangocu_ 'one hundred thousand.' The enumeration of the measurements of human height is achieved by placing _fito_ [_firo_] after the _iomi_ numerals; e.g., _fito firo_ 'one _firo_,' _futa firo_ 'two,' _jippiro_ 'ten.' The measurement of a span (_palmus_) is made by adding _xacu_ to the _coie_ numerals; e.g., _ixxacu_ 'one span, or three spans by the Spanish measuring system,'[197] _sanjaku_ 'three.' _Goxacu_ is the same as _fito firo_ which is a measurement we have referred to before. Six _xacu_ make up a measurement called _icqen_ 'one _qen_,' _nicqen_ [_niqen_] 'two,' _jicqen_ 'ten,' and _sanguen_ 'three.' From sixty of these measurements one makes a measurement called _icchó_, that is 'one mountain path,' _nicch[vo]_ [_nich[vo]_] 'two,' _jichi[vo] [jicch[vo]]_ 'ten,' _sangi[vo]_ 'three.' From sixty-three [thirty-six] _chô_, as measured in the northern part of Japan, one obtains _ichiri_ which is one league or one miliar. One enumerates by adding _ri_ to the _coie_ numerals; e.g., _niri_ 'two,' _sanri_ 'three,' _gori_ 'five,' _júri_ 'ten'; _iori_ is 'four,' because _xiri_ means anus.[198] _Fan michi_ {179} means 'a half of a league.' They say; _ioco fan miqi tate ichiri_ [... _michi_ ...] 'a half a _ri_ wide and one _ri_ long,' _faba icqen_ 'the width is one _qen_,' _iof[vo] futa firo_ 'two _hiro_ on all sides.' The cardinal numbers first, second, etc. are made by adding _ban_ to the _coie_ numerals; e.g., _ichi ban_ 'first,' _ni ban_ 'second.' To these are also added _me_, as said before; e.g., _xi ban me_ 'fourth.' One may also make the cardinal numbers by placing _dai_ in front of the _coie_ (71 numerals; e.g., _daiichi_ 'first,' _daini_ 'second,' etc. The enumeration of multiples is done by adding _bai_ to the numbers; e.g., _ichibai_ 'double,' _nibai_ 'triple,' _sanbai_ 'quadruple,'[199] _fiacu zobai_ 'one hundred fold.' The enumeration of the parts from the whole is done by placing _buichi_ after the numeral; e.g., _ni buichi_ 'one from two parts,' _san buichi_ 'one from three parts.' To indicate one tenth _vari_ is placed after the numeral; e.g., _ichi vari_ 'one from ten parts,' _xi vari gobu_ 'four and one half from ten parts.' _Jú buichi_ is the same as _ichi vari_. The enumeration of oars, muskets, and long things made of wood is done by placing _chó_ after the numerals; e.g., _icchó_ 'one oar,' _nichó_ 'two,' _sangi[vo]_ 'three,' _jichó_ [_jicchó_] 'ten.' The enumeration of fish and fire wood is done by placing _con_ after the numerals;[200] e.g., _iccon_, 'one fish,' _sangon_ 'three,' _jiccon_ 'ten,' _fiaccon_ 'one hundred,' _fiacu goj[vu] sangon_ 'one hundred and fifty-three.' This is the amount Saint Peter caught, and even though he caught that number the net did not tear. The enumeration of leaves of paper and sheets of gold, etc. is done by placing _mai_ after the numeral; e.g., _ichimai_ 'one leaf,' _cami gomai_ 'five leaves of paper.' The enumeration of the stories of a house is done by placing _cai_ after the numeral; e.g., _nicai_ 'the first floor,' _sangai_ 'the second,' _xigai_ 'the third,' _gocai_ 'the fourth,' when counted as in a house in Madrid. The enumeration of utensils and cups for drinking is done by placing _fai_ after the numeral; e.g., _ippai_ 'one drink, or one draught,' _nifai_ 'two,' _sanbai_ 'three,' _jippai_ 'ten.' {180} The enumeration of rolls of silk or the like is done by placing _tan_ after the numeral; e.g., _ittan_ 'one roll,' _nitan_ 'two,' _sandan_ 'three,' _jittan_ 'ten.' _Xichitan bune_ is a ship with a sail seven _tan_ wide. This is also said by adding _mai_ to the numeral; e.g., _gomai_ 'five,' as in _gomai bune_ 'a ship having a sail five _mai_ wide.' The enumeration of four-footed animals is done by placing _fiqi_ after the numeral; e.g., _ippiqi_ 'one animal,' _nifiqi_ 'two,' _sanbiqi_ 'three,' _roppiqi_ 'six,' _jippiqi_ 'ten,' _fiappiqi_ 'one hundred,' _xenbiqi_ 'one thousand.' The enumeration of images, pictures, and medicines is done (72 by placing _fucu_ after the numeral; e.g., _ippucu_ 'one item,' _nifucu_ 'two,' _sanbucu_ 'three,' _roppucu_ 'six,' _jippucu_ 'ten.' Needles are also counted this way. The enumeration of pounds (_libra_) is done by placing _qin_ after the numeral; e.g., _icqin_ 'one pound,' _niqin_ 'two,' _sanguin_ 'three,' _rocqin_ 'six,' _jicqin_ 'ten,' _fiacqin_ 'one hundred,' _xenqin_ 'one thousand.' The enumeration of masses and congregations of men is done by placing _za_ after the numeral; e.g., _ichiza_ 'one congregation,' _niza_ 'two,' _sanza_ 'three,' _j[vu]za_, or better _toza_ 'ten.' The enumeration of sacks of rice, wheat, and the like, is done by placing _fiô_ after the numeral; e.g., _ippiô_ 'one sack,' _nifiô_ 'two,' _sanbiô_ 'three,' _xifio_ [_xifiô_] 'four,' _roppio_ [_roppiô_] 'six,' _jippio_ [_jippiô_] 'ten,' _fiiappio_ [_fiappiô_] 'one hundred,' _xembiô_ [_xenbiô_] 'one thousand.' The enumeration of pieces of wood, reeds, and needles is done by placing _fon_ after the numeral; e.g., _ippon_ 'one item,' _nifon_ 'two,' _sanbon_ 'three,' _roppon_ 'six,' _jippon_ 'ten,' _fiappon_ 'one hundred,' _xenbon_ 'one thousand.' The enumeration of bundles (_fasciculus_) is done by placing _va_ after the numeral; e.g., _ichiva_ 'one bundle,' _niva_ 'two,' _sanba_ 'three,' _jippa_ 'ten,' _júichiva_ 'eleven,' _ni jippa_ 'twenty.' The enumeration of burdens or the packs that horses carry is done by placing _só_ after the numeral; e.g., _issó_ 'one burden,' _nis[vo]_ 'two,' _sanzó_ 'three,' _jiss[vo]_ 'ten.' In the same way one counts those furnishings called _bi[vo]bu_; two or a pair from a set is called _issó_, etc. The enumeration of that which in the vernacular is called a quire of paper (_mano de papel_) is done by placing _giô_ after the numeral; e.g., _ichigio_ [_ichigiô_] 'one quire,' _nigio_ [_nigiô_] 'two,' _sangiô_ 'three,' so on {181} to ten. Units of ten are counted by adding _socu_ to the numeral; e.g., _issocu_ 'ten quires, or what in the vernacular is called a half ream (_media resma_),' _nisocu_ 'twenty, or an entire ream.' With this particle _socu_ added to numerals one also counts pairs of shoes; e.g., _issocu_ 'a pair of shoes.' The enumeration of substance (_substantia_) is done by placing _tai_ after the numeral; e.g., _ittai_ 'one substance,' _nitai_ 'two,' _sandai_ 'three.' _Deus no von tocoro va goittai de gozaru_ 'God as God is of one substance and one essence.' The enumeration of the divisions in a writing (_capitulum_) is done by placing _cagiô_ after the numeral; e.g., _iccagiô_ 'one chapter,' (73 _nicagio_ [_nicagiô_] 'two,' _sangagio_ [_sangagiô_] 'three,' _roccagio_ [_roccagiô_] 'six,' _fiaccagio_ [_fiaccagiô_] 'one hundred.' The enumeration of drops is done by placing _teqi_ after the numeral; e.g., _itteqi_ 'one drop,' _jitteqi_ 'ten.' The same meaning is obtained by adding _xizzucu_ to the _iomi_ numeral; e.g., _fito xizzucu_ 'one drop,' etc. In this case the _tçu_ must be removed from the numeral. The enumeration of the pairs of small sticks (_paxillus_) with which they eat is done by placing _tçui_ after the numeral; e.g., _itçui_ [_ittçui_] 'one pair,' _jittçui_ 'ten.' The enumeration of bundles is done by placing _ca_ after the numeral; e.g., _icca_ 'one bundle,' _nica_ 'two,' _sanga_ 'three.' The enumeration of books is done by placing _quan_ after the numeral; e.g., _icquan_ 'one book,' _niquan_ 'two,' _sanguan_ 'three,' _roquan_ [_rocquan_] 'six,' _jiquan_ [_jicquan_] 'ten.' With the interrogative _nan_, when it is placed before one of these nouns, it changes it in the same way as does the number three; e.g., _ano mmadomo va nanbiki zo?_ 'how many horses are there?' The enumeration of kingdoms (_regnum_) is done by placing _cacocu_ after the numeral; e.g., _iccacocu_ 'one kingdom,' _nicacocu_ 'two,' _sangacocu_ 'three,' _jiccacocu_ 'ten.' Kingdoms are divided into provinces or districts called _gun_, and this word also is placed after the numeral; e.g., _ichigun_ 'one province,' _nigun_ 'two,' _sangun_ 'three,' etc. Sermons and exhortations are enumerated by placing _dan_ after the numeral; _ichidan_ 'one sermon, or assembly.' Words are enumerated by {182} placing _gon_ or _guen_ after the numeral; e.g., _ichigon_ 'one word,' _sanguen_ 'three words.' Placing the particle _zzutçu_ after either _coie_ or _iomi_ numerals gives the meaning of 'each'; e.g., _ichinin ni uxi sanbiki zzutçu vo toraxeta_ 'he let the men have three oxen each,' _ichinin zzutçu saqe sanbai zzutçu vo nomareta_ 'each man drank three sake each.' In speaking of two or three things separately, they join the two numbers; e.g., _xigonin_ 'four or five men,' from which others may be copied. The honorific particles are four; _vo_, _von_, _go_, and _mi_.[201] The first two are joined to _iomi_ vocables. The last two are joined to _coie_, or Chinese vocables. The last is the most honorific and is used when speaking of things divine; e.g., _midexi tachi_ 'disciples of Christ the Lord,' _goichinin vocoite cudasarei_ 'please send one from among the Lords.' The words which follow have honorific particles that have (74 been added by the speaker. However, the honor is shown to the person addressed or to those related to him; e.g., _go focô_ [_go fôcô_] 'a duty,' _von furu mai_ 'a banquet,' _von cotoba_ 'a word, or a sermon,' _von mono gatari_ 'a conversation,' _von natçucaxij_ or _von nocori vovoi_ which mean the same as what the Portuguese call _saudades_ (nostalgia) and the Spanish call _carino_ (affection), _von tori avaxe_ 'intercession,' _von mi mai_ 'a visit,' _von cha_ 'that which one drinks when they invite you,' _go dancó_ 'a consultation or congregation for the purpose of obtaining advice,' _von rei_ 'an act of gratitude,' _von busata_ 'a lapse of good manners,' _vo motenaxi_ 'to treat well and elegantly,' _go chiso_ [_go chisô_] 'esteem,' _go iqen_ 'an opinion,' e.g., _fabacari nagara go iqen vo m[vo]xitai_ 'forgive me but I would like to give you some advice,' etc. Some Rules on the Conjugation of the Verb in the Written Language If the final _u_ is removed from the negative present it becomes an affirmative verb; e.g., _oracio vo tçutomen toqi va_ 'when I say my prayers,' {183} _xosa no tçutomen tame ni va_ 'in order to execute the work,' _michibiqi tamavan to voboximexi_ 'thinking of leading forth.'[202] For the affirmative future _beqi_ is added to the affirmative form with the _ru_ removed; for the future negative _becarazu_ is added to the affirmative form; e.g., _m[vo]su beqi_ 'you will speak,' _mósu becarazu_ 'you will not speak.' When the sentence ends in the future, _beqi_ is changed to _bexi_. The infinitive for the future is formed by adding _coto_ to the future tense; e.g., _iomu beqi coto_. The subjunctive is formed by adding _qereba_ to the root of the verb; e.g., _sugure qereba_. The gerund in _Do_ is formed by adding _te_ to the root of the verb; e.g., _qiqi tamaite_. The substantive verb in the written language is _nari,u_ or _qeri,u_. If it comes at the end of the sentence it takes the root form;[203] e.g., _sadame naqi io no ixei nari_ 'it is the dignity of a world without stability.' The preterit is formed by adding _ari,u_ [_tari,u_] to the root; e.g., _suguretaru_. If the form comes at the end of a sentence _ari,u_ (75 [_tari,u_] is retained in the root form; e.g., _suguretari_. The pluperfect is formed by placing _nari_ after the present tense; e.g., _ague tam[vo] nari_ 'they had shown respect.' Even though there are other rules for the written language, if the reader knows Japanese well enough to read books, he will be able to progress in the language without difficulty. _PRAISE BE TO GOD_ * * * * * {185} Works Consulted Alvarez, Manuel (Emmanuel Alvarus), _De Institutione Grammatica, Libri III_, Lisbon, 1572. (Also Amakusa, 1594. Cf. _Laures_ #14.) Collado, Diego, O.P., _Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae_, Rome, 1632. (Trans. by [=O]tsuka Takanobu as _Koiyaado-ch[=o] Nippon bunten_, 1934 and revised as _Koryaado Nihon bunten_, 1957. Cf. _Laures_ #54.) Collado, Diego, O.P., _Dictionarium sive Thesauri Linguae Iaponicae Compendium_, Rome, 1632. (Edited by [=O]tsuka Mitsunobu as _Koryaado Ra-Su-Nichi jiten_, 1966. Cf. _Laures_ #56.) Collado, Diego, O.P., _Niffon no cotõba ni yô confesion_, Rome, 1632. (Transcribed by [=O]tsuka Mitsunobu as _Koryaado zangeroku_, 1957. Cf. _Laures_ #56.) Doi Tadao [Japanese], _Kirishitan gogaku no kenky[=u]_ [Japanese], Tokyo, 1971. Doi Tadao [Japanese], "Koryaado Nihon bunten no seiritsu [Japanese]," _Nihon gogaku shink[=o] iinkai keny[=u] h[=o]koku_, #3, 1941. Doi Tadao [Japanese], ed., _Nippo jisho_ [Japanese], Tokyo, 1960. (Japanese edition of the _Vocabulario_.) Doi Tadao [Japanese], trs., _Rodorigesu Nihon daibunten_ [Japanese] Tokyo, 1955. (Trans. of Rodriguez' _Arte_.) Fukushima Kunimichi [Japanese], _Kirishitan Shiry[=o] to kokugo kenky[=u]_ [Japanese], Tokyo, 1973. Hashimoto Shinkichi [Japanese], _Kirishitan ky[=o]gi no kenky[=u]_ [Japanese], Tokyo, 1928. Iwai Yoshio [Japanese], _Nihongoh[=o]-shi: Muromachi-jidai hen_ [Japanese] Tokyo, 1973. Laures, Johannes, S.J., _Kirishitan Bunko_, Tokyo, 1957. Lebrija, Antonio (Antonius Nebrissensis), _Introductiones Latinae_, Salamanca, 1481. Moran, Joseph F., _A Commentary on the Arte Breve da Lingoa Iapoa of João Rodriguez, S.J.: With Particular Reference to Pronunciation_, Unpublished doctoral thesis, Oxford, 1971. [=O]tomo Shin'ichi [Japanese], _Muromachi-jidai no kokugo-onsei no kenky[=u]_ [Japanese], Tokyo, 1963. [=O]tsuka Mitsunobu [Japanese], ed., _Koryaado Ra-Su-Nichi jiten_ [Japanese], Tokyo, 1966. (Japanese edition of Collado's _Dictionarium_.) [=O]tsuka Mitsunobu [Japanese], ed., _Koryaado zangeroku_ [Japanese], Tokyo, 1957. (Japanese edition of Collado's _Confesion_.) {186} [=O]tsuka Takanobu [Japanese], tr., _Koiyaado-ch[=o] Nihongo bunten_ [Japanese], Tokyo, 1934. (Revised as _Koryaado Nihon bunten_ [Japanese], Tokyo, 1957. Translation of Collado's _Ars Grammaticae_.) Rodriguez, João, S.J., _Arte Breve da Lingoa Iapoa_, Macao, 1620. (Cf. _Laures_ #35.) Rodriguez, João, S.J., _Arte da Lingoa de Iapam_, Nagasaki, 1604-1608. (Translated by Doi Tadao as _Rodorigesu Nihon daibunten_, 1955. Cf. _Laures_ #28.) Rodriguez, João, S.J., ed., _Vocabulario da Lingoa de Iapam_, Nagasaki, 1603-1604. (Edited by Doi Tadao as _Nippo Jisho_, 1960. Cf. _Laures_ #27.) Thurot, Charles, _Extraits de divers manuscrits Latins pour servir a l'historie des doctrines grammaticales au moyen-age_, Paris, 1869. Yuzawa K[=o]kichir[=o] [Japanese], _Muromachi-jidai gengo no Kenky[=u]_ [Japanese], Tokyo, 1958. * * * * * {187} Index To Grammatical Categories The list which follows refers to the location of the general categories defined by Collado's description of Japanese. A broader classification of the grammar will be found in the table of contents while the specific grammatical elements are listed in the index which follows. ablative (_see_ cases) accusative (_see_ cases) adjectival roots 114, 116, 138, 139 adjectives 114-117, 138, 139 adjectives, conditional 139 gerund 138 negative 138, 139 permissive 138 adverbial roots 115, 139, 162 adverbs 156-164 adverbs, accumulative 162 affirmative 160 comparative 161 conclusive 163 exaggerative 162 exclamatory 163 intensifying 162 interrogative 159 locational 156 negative 160 superlative 162 temporal 159 adversitive (_see_ particles) alternative (_see_ particles) arithmetic 174-182 auxiliaries 145-147, 149 auxiliaries, emphatic 149 humble 147 honorific 145, 146, 147 cases 111-113 cases, ablative 113 accusative 112 dative 112 genitive 112, 174 nominative 111 vocative 113 causative (_see_ verbs) conditional (_see_ moods) confirmation (_see_ particles) conjugations 166, 167 comparatives 161 copulas 137 copulas, negative 137 dative (_see_ cases) deciderative (_see_ particles) disjunctive (_see_ particles) disjunctive constructions 167 distributive (_see_ particles) dubitive (_see_ particles) emphatic (_see_ particles) exclamatory (_see_ adverbs, particles) future tense (_see_ verbs) genitive (_see_ cases) gerund (_see_ verbs) honorific (_see_ auxiliaries, particles, verbs) imperative (_see_ moods) imperfect aspect (_see_ verbs) infinitive (_see_ verbs) intensifier (_see_ particles) interjections 126, 132, 167, 168 interrogative (_see_ particles) irregular verbs (_see_ verbs) moods 125-142 moods, conditional 139, 140 imperative 125, 126, 132, 135-137 optative 126, 132 permissive 127-129, 133, 138, 139, 155 potential 140, 141 subjunctive 127, 128, 131-133, 138, 153 negative (_see_ verbs) neutral (_see_ verbs) nominalizers (_see_ particles) nominative (_see_ cases) nouns 111-118 optative (_see_ moods, particles) participle (_see_ verbs) particles 113-120, 148-156, 164-168, 182 particles, adversative 150, 153, 154 alternative 152 deciderative 126, 153 {188} disjunctive 167 distributive 120, 157 dubitive 162, 163 emphatic 124, 125, 149, 167, 150 exclamatory 163 honorific 118, 119, 146, 147, 182 intensive 120, 148, 149, 162, 163, 164 interrogative 156, 159, 163, 168 nominalizing 117 optative 126, 132 pejorative 119, 120 permissive 128, 133 pluralizing 113, 114, 118, 119 presumptive 170 quotative 168, 170, 171 temporal 149, 154, 159 particles of manner 153, 154 particles of possibility 153 particles of similarity 149, 150, 161 passive (_see_ verbs) perfect aspect (_see_ verbs) pejorative (_see_ particles) permissive (_see_ moods, particles) pluralizers (_see_ particles) pluperfect tense (_see_ verbs) possibility (_see_ particles) potential (_see_ moods, verbs) prepositions 164, 165, 166 present tense (_see_ verbs) presumptive (_see_ particles) preterit tense (_see_ verbs) pronouns 118-122 pronouns, first person 118, 119 second person 119 third person 120, 121 quotative (_see_ particles) relative constructions 122 subjunctive (_see_ moods, particles) substantive verbs (_see_ copulas) superlatives 162 supine (_see_ verbs) syntax 168-174 temporal (_see_ particles, adverbs) verbal roots 123, 131, 134-136 verbs 123-156 verbs, causative 143 future 125, 135-137 gerund 129, 130, 134, 138, 154, 155, 174, 183 honorific 145-147 imperfect 152 infinitive 128-130, 133 irregular 141, 142 negative, future 132, 133, 141 pluperfect 132, 136 present 131, 136 preterit 131 neutral 172 participle 131, 134 passive 143, 172 perfect 124, 137 pluperfect 125 potential 144 present 123, 134, 135 preterit 124, 134-137 supine 130, 131, 156 vocative (_see_ cases) written style 182, 183 * * * * * {189} Index to Grammatical Elements There follows a list of those elements which Collado describes in his grammar. To a certain degree I have regularized his morphophonological analysis. For example, the preterit permissive form, described by Collado as _redomo_ after a preterit verb, is cross-listed as _-ta redomo_ in order to bring together morphologically similar forms. All forms occurring in the text with the honorific _gozaru_, etc. are indexed as _aru_, etc. For example, the element found in _aguenande gozaru_ 'I have not offered' will be indexed under _-nande aru_. As a general rule in this index items beginning with a hyphen are classified as endings, while the remaining items are particles. The spelling used in this index is that of the original. Those readers more familiar with the modified Hepburn system of romanization, as reflected in Kenky[=u]sha's Dictionary, will find the following simplified chart of help. Syllables presented in _Kenky[=u]sha_ as beginning with the following initial letters will have the corresponding spellings in Collado's grammar: _e = ie_ | _k = ca, qi, cu, qe, co_ _o = vo_ | _s = sa, xi, su, xe, so_ ----------| _z = za, ji, zu, je, zo_ _h = f_ | _t = ta, chi, tçu, te, to_ _y = i_ | _d = da, gi, zzu, de, do_ _w = v_ | The citations are numbered according to their location in the translation and are limited to those places where the element is explained or used to demonstrate a grammatical point. The following abbreviations are used: abl. ablative excl. exclamatory part. participle adj. adjective fut. future perf. perfect adv. adverb gen. genitive perm. permissive advers. adversitive ger. gerund pot. potential acc. accusative hon. honorific plup. pluperfect aff. affirmative imp. imperative prep. preposition alt. alternative ind. indicative pres. present aux. auxiliary verb inf. infinitive pret. preterit concl. conclusive interj. interjection pron. pronoun cond. conditional interr. interrogative quot. quotative conj. conjunction intens. intensive subj. subjunctive const. construction irr. irregular temp. temporal cop. copula loc. locative v. verb dat. dative n. noun voc. vocative disj. disjunctive neg. negative writ. written style dist. distributive nom. nominative 1st 1st conjugation dub. dubitive opt. optative 2nd 2nd conjugation emph. emphatic p. particle 3rd 3rd conjugation {190} _-aba_ (cond., 2nd) 139 _-ai_ (adj.) 114, 138 _-ai_ (imp.) 135, n. 91 _-ai_ (v. root, 3rd) 135 _ai_ (emph.) 149 _ai_ (hort.) 163 _aidani_ (temp.) 149 _-ananda_ (neg. pret., 2nd) 135 _-anu_ (neg. pres., 2nd) 135 _arisama_ (p. of manner) 154 _ari,u_ (hon. aux.) 145, 146 _arui va_ (conj.) 166 _avare_ (interj.) 168; (w. opt.) 126, 132 _-azu_ (neg. root, 2nd) 135 _-ba_ (cond.) 139 _-ba atte mo_ (advers.) 153 _bacari_ (intens.) 164 _-baia_ (w. fut.) 125 _-ba tote_ (perm.) 133 _baxi_ (dub.) 163 _becarazu_ (neg. fut., writ.) 183 _beqi_ (fut., writ.) 183 _beqi coto_ (fut. inf., writ.) 183 _bexi_ (fut., writ.) 183 _ca_ (interr.) 156, 163; (temp.) 159; (conj.) 167 _cai-_ (intens.) 149 _caia_ (interr.) 163 _cana_ (interj.) 168 _canavanu_ (w. const. showing necessity) 155 _cara_ (nom.) 111; (abl.) 113; (w. subj.) 127; (w. neutral v.) 172; (w. passive v.) 172 _-carananda_ (neg. pret. adj.) 139 _-caranu_ (neg. pres. adj.) 139 _-carazu_ (neg. adj. root) 139 _-catte_ (neg. adj. ger.) 138 _caxi_ (w. opt.) 126, 132; (w. subj.) 128 _coso_ (advers.) 150; (w. ind. ending in _-e_) 150; (neg. meaning w. aff. ger.) 154 _coto_ (w. inf.) 129, 133; (w. pot.) 154 _coto gia_ (p. w. no special meaning) 152 _coto mo arózu_ (w. pot.) 141 _-da_ (see _-ta_) _-dari_ (see _-tari_) _-de_ (see _-te_) _de_ (prep.) 165, 166; (w. subj.) 127, 153 _-demo_ (see _-temo_) _dógu_ (nominalizer) 117 _-domo_ (perm.) 127, 133, 138 _domo_ (p. of necessity) 155 _domo_ (n. pluralizer) 113, 114, 119 _-e_ (ind. w. _coso_) 150 _-e_ (see _-te_) _-e_ (v. root, 1st) 123 _-e_ (imp.) 135, 136, 137 _-eba_ (pres. cond., 1st) 139 _-edomo_ (see _redomo_) _-ei_ (adj.) 114, 138 _-enu_ (neg. pres., 1st) 131 _-eô_ (adv.) 115, 156 _-eô_ (fut., 1st) 125 _-eôda_ (pret., 1st) 135 _-ezu_ (neg. v. root, 1st) 131 _faia_ (emph.) 124, 125 _faxi-_ (intens.) 149 _fito_ (w. part.) 131, 134 _fodo_ (w. gen.) 174 _furi-_ (p. of similarity) 150 _ga_ (nom.) 111; (gen.) 112; (acc.) 112; (w. inf.) 129; (in relative const.) 122 _ga_ (intens. w. pron.) 120 _ga_ (conj.) 148 _ga gotoqu_ (p. of similarity) 149 _gana_ (w. opt.) 126, 132 _go_ (hon.) 182 _goto_ (dist.) 120 _goto_ (nominalizer) 117 _gotoqu_ (p. of similarity) 150, 161 _guena_ (presumptive) 170 _ha_ (interj.) 168 _hat_ (interj.) 168 _-i_ (adj.) 116 _-i_ (imp.) 135, 136 {191} _-i_ (v. root, 2nd) 134 _-i_ (irr. v. root, 1st) 123 _ia_ (excl.) 163 _ia_ (interj.) 168 _iai_ (excl.) 163 _iara_ (interj.) 168; (w. disj. const.) 167 _iare_ (excl.) 163 _-iasui_ (w. supine) 156 _icani_ (voc.) 113; (w. plurals) 113 _-i caxi_ (perm.) 129 _-ide_ (neg. ger.) 134 _-ide arózu_ (neg. plup. showing completed action) 137 _-ide aru_ (neg. plup.) 132 _-ide atta_ (neg. plup.) 132 _-ide canavanu_ (ending showing necessity) 155 _-idemo_ (neg. fut. perm.) 133, 154 _-ide naranu_ (ending showing necessity) 155 _-ide nochi_ (neg. ger.) 134 _-ide va_ (ending showing necessity) 155 _ie_ (acc.) 112; (dat.) 112; (prep.) 165; (w. subj.) 127 _ie_ (w. neg. possibility) 153 _ie,uru_ (aux. of neg. possibility) 152 _iei_ (interr.) 168 _igo_ (w. subj.) 127 _-ij_ (adj.) 114, 138 _io_ (intens.) 163 _io_ (imp.) 125 _ió_ (p. of manner) 153 _io caxi_ (w. opt.) 126 _ióni_ (w. inf.) 129; (w. quot.) 170 _iori_ (nom.) 111; (abl.) 113; (w. inf.) 130; (w. ger.) 174; (w. comparative const.) 161; (w. relative const.) 122 _iori mo_ (w. comparative const.) 161 _iori mo nao_ (w. comparative const.) 161 _-i tomo_ (perm. adj.) 138 _-iú_ (adv.) 115, 156 _jibun_ (w. ger.) 130 _ma-_ (v. intensifier) 149 _macari-_ (p. showing modesty) 149 _made_ (prep.) 166 _made gia_ (p. w. no special meaning) 152 _madeio_ (w. perm.) 128, 133; (p. of confirmation) 152 _mai_ (dist.) 120 _mai_ (neg. fut.) 132 _mai coto_ (neg. fut. inf.) 133 _mai coto mo arózu_ (neg. fut. pot.) 141 _maieni_ (w. neg. v.) 133 _mai mono_ (neg. ger.) 134 _mai mono vo_ (neg. opt.) 132 _mai qereba_ (neg. subj.) 133 _mai qeredomo_ (neg. perm.) 133, 155 _mairaxi,u_ (hon. aux.) 147 _mai tomo_ (neg. fut. perm.) 133 _mai tote_ (neg. ger.) 134 _maji_ (neg. fut., cf. _mai_) 132 _maji qere_ (neg. cond.) 139 _majiqu va_ (neg. cond.) 140 _mamaio_ (w. perm.) 128, 133 _maraxi,u_ (hon. aux.) 145 _mata_ (conj.) 166 _mata va_ (conj.) 166 _me_ (pejorative, w. pron.) 119, 120 _me_ (p. showing terminus of action) 117 _me-_ (feminine) 114 _mega_ (pejorative, w. pron.) 119, 120 _mexi-_ (hon.) 147 _mi-_ (hon.) 118, 182 _mo_ (conj.) 166; (dist.) 157; (advers. w. ger.) 154; (w. subj.) 128 _mono_ (p. showing performer of action) 117 _mono_ (w. part.) 131, 134; (w. pot.) 141 _mono de arózu_ (w. cond.) 141 _mono vo_ (w. opt.) 126, 132 _motte_ (emph.) 167 _moxi_ (excl.) 163 _moxi va_ (conj.) 166 _-n_ (pres., writ.) 182 _na_ (concl.) 163 _na_ (neg. imp.) 132, 137 {192} _na_ (adj.) 115, 117, 138 _na caxi_ (neg. opt.) 132 _-nagara_ (ger.) 155 _nal coto mo arózu_ (neg. pot. w. adj.) 141 _-naide_ (neg. ger.) 134 _-naide cara_ (neg. ger.) 134 _-naidemo_ (neg. perf. perm.) 133 _nama_ (p. showing incomplete action) 148 _-nanda_ (neg. pret.) 132 _-nanda coto_ (neg. pret. inf.) 133 _-nanda mono_ (neg. ger.) 134 _-nanda mono de arózu_ (neg. perf. pot.) 141 _-nandaraba_ (neg. perf. cond.) 139 _-nanda reba_ (neg. perf. subj.) 133 _-nanda reba tote_ (neg. perf. perm.) 133 _-nanda redomo_ (neg. perf. subj.) 133 _-nanda ritomo_ (neg. perf. perm.) 133 _-nanda to_ (neg. perf. inf.) 133 _-nande aru_ (neg. plup.) 132 _-nande atta_ (neg. plup.) 132 _-nanzzu ró_ (neg. perf. pot.) 141 _-naraba_ (cond.) 139 _naranu_ (w. const. showing necessity) 155 _nari,u_ (pot. aux. w. adj.) 141 _nasare,uru_ (hon. aux.) 145 _na ... so_ (neg. imp.) 132, 137 _-neba_ (neg. subj.) 132 _-neba tote_ (neg. perm.) 133 _-nedomo_ (neg. perm.) 133 _negavacu va_ (w. opt.) 126, 132 _ni_ (dat.) 112; (abl.) 113; (prep.) 164, 165; (w. ger.) 130, 134; (w. cond.) 138; (w. subj.) 127; (w. supine) 130, 131; (w. passive v.) 172; (adv. form of _na_) 121 _ni iotte_ (prep.) 164; (w. indefinite pron.) 121 _ni itatte_ (prep.) 165 _ni tai xite_ (prep.) 164 _ni tçuite_ (prep.) 164; (w. inf.) 130 _ni totte_ (prep.) 165 _ni va_ (w. cond.) 139 _ni voite va_ (prep.) 165; (w. cond.) 139, 140 _ni xitagatte_ (prep.) 165 _ni xitagóte_ (see _ni xitagatte_) _ni xite_ (w. ger.) 130, 138 _no_ (nom.) 111; (gen.) 112; (w. quote.) 171; (to form adj.) 114; (in relative const.) 122 _nó_ (p. of confirmation) 163 _nochi_ (w. subj.) 127 _no gotoqu_ (prep., dialect) 166 _no iori_ (prep.) 165 _-nu_ (neg. pres., 1st) 131 _-nu madeio_ (neg. pres. perm., 1st) 133 _-nu maie ni_ (w. aff. meaning) 151 _-nu mamaio_ (neg. pres. perm., 1st) 133 _o_ (form of _vo_ after _n_) 171 _-ó_ (pres., 3rd) 135 _-ó_ (fut., 2nd) 135; (fut. imp., 2nd) 135 _-ó_ (adv.) 115, 156 _-ô_ (pres., 3rd) 136 _-ô_ (fut., 1st) 125; (fut. imp., 1st) 125 _-ô_ (adv.) 115, 156 _-ô coto_ (fut. inf., 1st) 129 _-ô coto mo arózu_ (fut. pot., 1st) 141 _-óda_ (pret., 2nd) 134 _-ôda_ (pret., 2nd) 134 _-ô fito_ (fut. part., 1st) 131 _-oi_ (adj.) 114, 138 _-oi_ (v. root, 3rd) 135 _-ô mono_ (fut. part., 1st) 131 _-ô ni_ (ger., 1st) 130 _-ô tame_ (ger., 1st) 130 _-óte_ (adj. ger.) 138 _-ôte_ (adj. ger.) 138 _-ô to_ (fut. inf., 1st) 129 _-ô toqi_ (fut. subj., 1st) 127 _-ô tote_ (ger., 1st) 130 _-ó xite_ (adj. ger.) 138 _-ôzu_ (fut., 2nd) 135 _-ôzu_ (imp., 1st) 125 _-ôzu mono vo_ (perf. opt., 1st) 126 _-ôzure_ (fut., 1st, w. _coso_) 151 _-ôzuru_ (fut., 2nd) 135 {193} _-ôzuru_ (fut., 1st) 125 _-ôzuru coto no saqi ni_ (plup. subj., 1st) 128 _-ôzuru ni_ (plup. subj., 1st) 128 _-ôzuru tocoro ni_ (plup. subj., 1st) 128 _-ôzu tomo_ (fut. perm., 1st) 128 _qere_ (p. of confirmation) 150 _qereba_ (w. subj.) 133, 138 _qeredomo_ (w. perm.) 133, 139 _-qi_ (adj.) 116 _qiri,u_ (emph. aux.) 149 _-qu_ (adj. root) 138 _-qu tomo_ (adj. perm.) 138 _-qu va_ (adj. cond.) 139 _-qu xite_ (adj. ger.) 138 _ra_ (pluralizer) 113, 114, 118, 119 _-raba_ (cond.) 139 _-rare,uru_ (pot., 1st) 144; (hon., 1st) 145; (passive, 1st) 143 _-re,uru_ (pot., w. 2nd & 3rd) 144; (hon., w. 2nd & 3rd) 145, 147; (passive, w. 2nd & 3rd) 143 _-re_ (pret. ending after _coso_, see _-tare_) 150 _-reba_ (subj., 1st) 127 _reba_ (w. perf. subj.) 132; (w. cop.) 138 _-redomo_ (perm., 1st) 128 _redomo_ (w. perf. perm.) 133; (w. inf.) 130; (w. cop.) 138 _-ri_ (alt.) 152 _ritomo_ (w. perf. perm.) 128, 133 _ró_ (pot.) 140 _-ru_ (see _-uru_) _sa_ (nominalizer for adj.) 117 _sai_ (imp.) 126 _saie_ (emph.) 150; (w. cond.) 140; (w. neg. const.) 150 _sama_ (prep., dialect) 166 _sama_ (temp.) 154 _sama_ (hon.) 119 _saqini_ (w. neg. v.) 151 _saraba_ (conj.) 167 _sareba sareba_ (conj.) 167 _sari nagara_ (conj.) 167 _satemo_ (interj.) 167 _satemo satemo_ (interj.) 167 _sate sate_ (interj.) 167 _-saxe,uru_ (causative) 143 _saxemaxi,u_ (hon. aux.) 145 _-saxerare,uru_ (hon.) 146 _só aru tocoro de_ (conj.) 167 _sóna_ (p. of presumption) 170 _-ta_ (pret., 1st) 124, 134, 136; (w. adj. function) 116 _-tacatta_ (pret. of _-tai_) 153 _tachi_ (pluralizer) 113, 119 _-ta coto_ (pret. inf., 1st) 129 _-ta fito_ (pret. part., 1st) 131 _-tagari,u_ (2nd & 3rd person deciderative) 153 _-tai_ (deciderative) 153; (w. imp. meaning) 126 _-ta madeio_ (per. perm., 1st) 128 _tamai,ó_ (hon. aux.) 145 _-ta mamaio_ (perf. perm., 1st) 128 _tame_ (prep.) 164; (w. ger.) 130, 134 _tameni_ (w. supine) 130 _-ta mono_ (pret. part., 1st) 131 _-ta mono de arózu_ (perf. pot., 1st) 141 _-taraba_ (perf. cond., 1st) 139 _-taraba iocaró mono va_ (perf. opt., 1st) 126 _-tare_ (pret. ending w. _coso_) 150 _-ta reba_ (perf. subj., 1st) 127 _-ta reba tote_ (perf. perm., 1st) 128 _-ta redomo_ (perf. perm., 1st) 128 _-tari_ (pret. writ.) 183 _-tari_ (alt.) 152 _-ta ritomo_ (perf. perm., 1st) 128 _-taró ni va_ (perf. cond., 1st) 139 _-taró va_ (perf. opt.) 126 _-tarózu_ (plup., 1st) 125 _tate matçuri,u_ (humble aux.) 147 _-ta to_ (pret. inf., 1st) 129 _tatoi_ (w. perm.) 128 _-tçu_ (alt.) 152 _tçui-_ (intens.) 148 _-tçu ró_ (perf. pot., 1st) 140, 151 _-te_ (ger.) 129, 130, 155, 183; (inf.) 129 _-te_ (part.) 131 _-te aranu_ (neg. pret., completed action) 137 _-te aró_ (fut., completed action) 137 {194} _-te aró ni va iocaró mono vo_ (perf. opt.) 126 _-te arózu_ (perf.) 124, 137 _-te atta_ (perf.) 124, 137; (w. perf. subj.) 127 _-te atta reba_ (plup. subj.) 127 _-te cara_ (plup. subj.) 127 _-te coso_ (w. neg. meaning) 154 _tei_ (p. of manner) 154 _-te igo_ (plup. subj.) 127 _-te mo_ (subj.) 128; (w. advers.) 154 _-te nochi_ (plup. subj.) 127 _to_ (gen.) 112 _to_ (conj.) 166 _to_ (w. inf.) 129, 133 _to_ (quot.) 168; (w. adv. of sound) 163 _tocacu_ (disj.) 167 _tocoro_ (w. subj.) 127; (p. of completed action) 151 _tocoro gia_ (p. w. no special meaning) 151 _tocoro no_ (w. relative const.) 122 _-tomo_ (w. perm.) 128, 133, 138, 150 _to mo_ (quot.) 170 _-tó mo nai_ (neg. of _-tai_) 153 _toqi_ (w. subj.) 127; (w. pret. imperfect) 152 _tori-_ (intens.) 149 _tote_ (w. perm.) 128, 133; (w. ger.) 134 _to tomo ni_ (prep.) 165 _to xite_ (w. ger.) 130 _-tta_ (pret., 2nd) 134 _-u_ (pres., 2nd) 134 _-ú_ (adv.) 115, 156 _-ú_ (pres., 3rd) 136 _uchi-_ (intens.) 149 _-ui_ (adj.) 115, 138 _-ui_ (v. root, 3rd) 135 _uie_ (prep.) 166 _uie iori_ (prep.) 164 _-unda_ (pret., 2nd) 134 _-ureba_ (pres. cond.) 139 _-uru_ (pres., 1st) 123 _-uru fito_ (pres. part., 1st) 131 _-uru iori_ (pres. inf., 1st) 130 _-uru jibun_ (ger., 1st) 130 _-uru madeio_ (pres. perm., 1st) 128 _-uru mamaio_ (pres. perm., 1st) 128 _-uru mo_ (fut. perm., 1st) 128 _-uru mono_ (pres. part., 1st) 131 _-uru ni_ (ger., 1st) 130 _-uru ni tçuite_ (pres. inf., 1st) 130 _-uru tame_ (ger., 1st) 130 _-uru tameni_ (supine, 1st) 130 _-uru tomo_ (fut. perm., 1st) 128 _-uru tote_ (ger., 1st) 130 _-uru vo motte_ (pres. inf., 1st) 128 _va_ (nom.) 111; (acc.) 112; (w. subj.) 127; (w. inf.) 130; (w. cond.) 139; (w. other p.) 114; (replacing other p.) 114; (w. const. showing necessity) 155 _va_ (p. of confirmation) 149 _-vaba_ (cond., 3rd) 139 _-vananda_ (neg. pret., 3rd) 136 _-vanande aru_ (neg. pret., 3rd) 136 _-vanande atta_ (neg. pret., 3rd) 136 _-vanu_ (neg. pres., 3rd) 136 _-vazu_ (neg. root, 3rd) 136 _vo_ (acc.) 113; (w. subj.) 127; (w. neutral v.) 172; (becomes _o_ after _n_) 171 _vo-_ (hon.) 146, 182 _vo-_ (masculine) 114 _-vó_ (fut., 3rd) 136 _voba_ (acc.) 112 _voi-_ (intens.) 149 _vo motte_ (prep.) 165; (w. inf.) 130 _von-_ (hon.) 118, 182 _vôxe-_ (hon.) 147 _-vózu_ (fut., 3rd) 136 _-vózuru_ (fut., 3rd) 136 _-xe,uru_ (causative) 143 _xemaxi,u_ (hon. aux.) 145 _-xerare,uru_ (hon.) 146 _-xi_ (adj.) 116 _xicareba_ (conj.) 167 _xidai_ (prep.) 165 _xite_ (w. neg. ger.) 131, 134 _xu_ (n. pluralizer) 113 _-zaru_ (neg. pres., dialect) 131 {195} _-zatta_ (neg. pret., dialect) 131 _-zatta reba_ (neg. perf. subj. dialect) 131 _zo_ (interr.) 156, 159, 163; (temp.) 159; (dub.) 162; (intens.) 162 _-zu_ (neg. v. root, 1st) 131 _-z[~u]ba_ (neg. cond.) 139 _-zumba_ (see _z[~u]ba_) _-zu tomo_ (neg. perf. perm., 1st) 133 _-zu va_ (neg. cond.) 139 _-zu xite_ (neg. ger., 1st) 131, 134 _-zzu_ (alt.) 152 _-zzu ró_ (perf. pot.) 140, 151 * * * * * Notes [1] Diego Collado, O.P., _Niffon no Cotoba no Yô Confesion_, etc. (Rome, 1632). For further bibliographic data cf. Johannes Laures, _Kirishitan Bunko_ (Tokyo, 1957). Cf. also [=O]tsuka Mitsunobu, _Koriyaado zangeroku_ (Tokyo, 1967), for a Japanese transliteration and concordance. It should be noted that the material in this work had no direct influence upon the concurrently written grammar. The only example in the _Ars Grammaticae_ which might have been borrowed from the _Confesion_ is on p. 23 where we find _doco de qiqi marasuru mo, sono sata va mósanu_ 'although this is heard everywhere, I have heard nothing of it.' which parallels the _Confesion_, p. 6, l. 18; _docu _[_sic_]_ de qiqi marasuru mo; sono sata ga gozaranu_ 'one hears about this everywhere; but, it doesn't seem to be so.' [2] The bibliographical data on these and other works directly related to the study of Collado's Grammar will be found in the section on bibliography which follows. [3] Other works by Collado have come down to us; cf. a memorial by him published in 1633 (Laures, _Kirishitan Bunko_, item 411). Such material is, however, only peripherally related to the study of language. [4] For a brilliantly written biography see Michael Cooper, S.J., _Rodrigues the Interpreter: An Early Jesuit in Japan and China_ (Tokyo, 1974). [5] The Press of the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith was founded in 1626 when the Congregation was at the height of its activity. Grammars of the major non-European languages published during this period are: _Date_ _Language_ _Grammarian_ 1628 Syrian Abraham Ecchell 1630 Ethiopian V. M. Rearino 1631 Arabic Thomas Obicini 1632 Japanese Diego Collado 1636 Coptic A. Kircher 1637 Arabic Germano de Silesia 1642 Arabic P. Guadagnoli 1643 Georgian F. M. Maggio 1645 Armenian Clemente Galano 1647 Syrian J. Acurense 1650 Arabic Antonio de Aguila 1661 Persian Ignazio de Jesu [6] Rodriguez' own work is strongly influenced by the format found in Manuel Alvarez (1526-1582), _De Institutione Grammatica, Libri III_ (Lisbon, 1572). So much a part of the training in the Society of Jesus was this work that an edition was printed in 1594 as one of the earliest products of the Mission Press at Amakusa. [7] The palatal semi-vowel is represented, as in most the Christian materials, by a number of transcriptional devices such as _i_, _e_, _h_, and palatal consonants; e.g., _fiacu_, _agueô_, _cha_, and _xô_. [8] See the translation, p. [82], n. 8. [9] Collado's and Rodriguez' analyses agree in classifying the _ni-dan_ verbs and _suru_ into one conjunction, the _yo-dan_ verbs into a second, and the _ha-gy[=o]_ of the _yo-dan_ into a third. [10] It should be recalled that the _Ars Grammaticae_ is numbered by the page and the _Arte_ by the leaf. [11] See p. 14, under _Dos nomes adiectivos_, where the initial distinction is drawn between nominal and verbal adjectives. [12] Rodriguez does not treat the substantive verb in _Arte Breve_, but refers the reader to his earlier work for its description. [13] _Verbo pessoal_ as contrasted with _verbo substantivo_ and _verbo adjectivo_. [14] Rodriguez defines this term elsewhere (_Arte_, 56) as the vowels, _A_, _I_, _V_, _Ye_, _Vo_, in that order. See also the introduction to the _Vocabulario_. [15] This term, not found in the _Arte_, is applied to the entire complex of "spelling" rules which Rodriguez introduces into his description. While no clear-cut influences can be established, it is generally held by Doi and others that these rules are based upon _Kanazukai no chikamichi_ or some similar work. See _Kokugogaku taikei_, Vol. 9 (Tokyo, 1964), pp. 69-77. [16] Latin _liquesco_, "to become fluid, or melt." Used here as a term to describe the palatal and labial series. [17] This last phrase is to be understood in the context of the following passages which deal with euphonic change in the absence of a devise, _nigori ten_, to show voicing. [18] Rodriguez used _Vma_ regularly in the _Arte_, but notes the variant _Muma_ on 178v. [19] Presumably a reference to such variants as _Samurô_ for _Saburô_. [20] _Liurinho_, presumably a treatise such as the _Kanazukai no chikamichi_, by Ichij[=o] Kanera. [21] In this passage Rodriguez is suggesting that certain European grammarians, out of ignorance of native grammatical theory, have misinterpreted the formational rules; and that, perhaps for pedogogical convenience, he has retained some of these "unnatural" rules in his description. [22] Read _Taxxi_. [23] Read _tatesai_. The punctuation _Tateyo_. _Tatei_, _tatesai_, is in all likelihood a typesetter's error for _Tateyo_, _tatei_, _tatesai_. [24] The conjugational display (27v) lists _motomuruni_ and _motomurutocoroni_. [25] Rodriguez is here confusing the usage of the classical particle _ran, ramu_ with the construction _te + ara + mu_. [26] In the conjugational charts we find: _motomeô_ } _motometar[vo]_ } _toki_ _motomeôzuru_ } [27] The following notes are necessary to correct the printer's errors that occur in this listing: a. In the perfect conditional of _Vabi_ read _bitaraba_ for _bitaraaba_. b. The form _Fitobi_ should in all likelihood read _Fotobi_ 'to be wet.' c. The forms _Fotobi_, _Fokorobi_, and _Fusabi_ are all given present indicatives in _bu_. There seems to be no reason for the ending appropriate to the classical _sh[=u]shikei_ to be used for these particular verbs and the _bu_ is taken as a misprint of _buru_. The _Arte_ (28) lists these forms as regular. d. In the perfect conditional of _Mochiy_ read _ytaraba_ for _yttaraba_. e. The form _Coru_ should read _Cori_. f. It will be noticed in the final segment of this listing, beginning with Y, Rodriguez makes no effort to distinguish among _Kami-ichidan_, _kami-nidan_, and the irregular verb _Ki_ 'to come.' [28] By this single rule Rodriguez brings the two _na-hen_ verbs into the second conjugation. [29] Read _najûda_ and _nijûda_. [30] Although the spelling _auogh[vo]_ would contain a redundancy it would agree with such forms as _aghuru_, _coghanu_ and _cogh[vo]_ found elsewhere. [31] This use of the imperative reflects a purely formal solution to the morphological problem. [32] Read _Yôdareba_. [33] This rule, which consciously or unconsciously associates the future and the conditional, is also applied to the third conjugation, while the first conjugation uses the root. [34] The future is the same as the present. [35] This spelling of the final root consonant with a _c_ is irregular for verbs. Cf. _cakanu_ just below. [36] The association of the negative with the future, and by extension with the conditional, suggests a keen awareness of the underlying system, particularly since the _Canadzucai_ rules to which he refers require the formation be made from the present. It should be noted that this rule is significantly more elegant than that which derives the negative from the root. [37] The _ij_ in the original is the digraph _ij_, as elsewhere. [38] Read _Redomo_. [39] _Majij_ with the digraph would be more regular. [40] A photostatic copy of the entire text has been made available by Shima Sh[=o]z[=o], _Rodorigesu Nihon daibunten_ (Tokyo, Bunka Shob[=o], 1969). [41] [=O]tsuka's comparison of the Spanish manuscript with the printed version of the text suggests that many of the typographical errors found in our text are the result of material being too hastily transcribed from a more correct original while the work was being translated from Latin. [42] This Reference is to _Arte_ of 1604-8. The _Arte Breve_, printed in 1620 in Macao, was not available to Collado. [43] The _Dictionarium sive Thesauri Linguae Iaponicae_, which was in fact published at the same time. [44] See the Introduction for the regularized usage of these symbols in the translation. (The transcription of _gacux[vo]_, and the _aia[vu]_ below, are at variance with the rule for the translation and are here transcribed as printed.) [45] This convention is not transcribed in the translation (cf. Introduction). [46] More regularly _synaloephy_--the contraction of two syllables into one. [47] The geminates that actually appear in the text are; _tt_, _xx_, _zz_, _cq_, _ij_ & _pp_, as well as _cc_ (_cch_), _mm_, _nn_, and _ss_. Two appear initially _mm_, as in _mma_ 'horse,' and _zz_, as in _zzuru_ 'to leave.' The form _qq_ which would be phonetically equivalent to _cq_ is not recorded. [48] This sequence is not used in the body of the grammar, rather the less phonetically accurate _ia_, _ie_, etc. It should be noted that the _Dictionarium_, which was written contemporaniously, does use _y_ for the semivowel. [49] For _s_ read _g_. The _Arte_ (177v) discusses this phenomenon as being characteristic of vowels before _d_, _dz_, and _g_. [50] Since in fact the accent has been carelessly recorded in the text--in places added in an almost random fashion by either the author, his helpers, or the printer--we have not included its marking in the translation. (Cf. Introduction.) [51] The _Dictionarium_ has the spelling _fibicàxi_ in one entry and in the only other it is transcribed as above. [52] Acts, 19:20. Referring to the servant in the parable of the pounds who is condemned for keeping his money "laid away in a napkin." [53] The text uses _reduplicatiuus_, with the grammatical meaning of plural singular; e.g., the singular I with the meaning of myself and those around me. [54] Both the _Dictionarium_ and the _Vocabulario_ have either _Nifon_ or _Nippon_, but do not record this form. It seems not to be a simple typographical error since the spelling is used in the title of the companion piece to this work, the _Confesion_, and since the text itself has _niffion_ and it is changed to _niffon_ in the _errata_. _Nifon_ appears on page 43. [55] The _Arte_ and the _Vocabulario_ use the forms _goran_ and _gor[vo]_ in free variation. Collado here and in the _Dictionarium_ uses what appears to be the less phonetically accurate transcription. The Spanish manuscript has _goranjerarei_. [56] May I submit this as a candidate for the most exotic bit of anti-semitism in Christendom. [57] The text reads _funè-de_, and apparently Collado is attempting to indicate both accent and nasalization at the same time. He does not continue this practice. [58] The text has _caper silvester_ 'the wild he-goat' presumably the _capreolus capreolus_ which is similar in appearance to the Japanese deer, _cervus sika_. [59] While this rule is operative for _caij_, it creates difficulties after _x_. Rodriguez' rule is _ij_ becomes _[vu]_ with the example of _atarax[vu]_. Collado's rule would create _ataraxiú_. (Cf. p. 33.) [60] Neither Collado nor Rodriguez make a clear distinction between the quantitative function of _no_ and the qualitative function of _na_. [61] Collado usually make a clear distinction between colloquial and literary forms. He apparently is suggesting that these non-colloquial forms are heard in the spoken language. Here, not only is the style left unexplained, but the translation _faciendo bonam consultationem_ is less than ellucidating. Here the _ioqu_ is in fact adverbial. [62] From _kobu_ 'to flatter.' An abbreviation of _kobita kotoba_, and used to indicate refined speech; i.e., that speech containing Chinese borrowings. See Doi Tadao, _Kirishitan gogaku no kenky[=u]_ (Tokyo, 1942, pp. 67-70). The term is also found in the introduction to the _Vocabulario_ in the expression _palauras Cobitas_. [63] The text reads _De pronomine secundae personae_.... [64] This list, unquestionably derived from the _Arte_ (67v), has been in several ways confounded. The _mi_ is out of order and the second _vare_ is clearly in error. If we put aside the genitive forms from Rodriguez' list, the first four forms should be _vare_, _varera_, _vatacuxi_, and _soregaxi_. Rodriguez' second set consists of _mi_, _midomo_, and _midomora_. We would suggest that Collado meant to include _ura_, which is listed by Rodriguez as the genitive form _vraga_. I offer _vatacuxi_, _soregaxi_, _vare_, _varera_, _mi_, _midomo_, _midomora_, and _ura_ as the intended list, with the order of _mi_ and _varera_ reversed to accommodate the sentence which follows. [65] The forms for the second person are derived from the _Arte_ (68). Throughout this section the accent marks are quite erratic. In several places, for example, Collado has _sónata_ and even _sónatá_. [66] In the material which follows Collado has brought together items from several sections of the _Arte_; for the interrogatives see (65-65v), the indefinites (66), and the demonstratives (68). [67] These reduplicated forms are not derived from Rodriguez' description and are apparently misstatements of the forms _care_ and _are_ which would otherwise be missing. [68] An abbreviated form of _monomósu_; cf. _Arte_ (139v). [69] Collado is here speaking with reference to the normal order in Latin. [70] The treatment of the verbal system by Collado follows in a general way the _Arte_ (6v-54v). In the material that follows specific references will be made when a comparison of the two works is suggested. [71] The text has _secundae coniugationis_. This error, which is repeated throughout the text, is not present in the Spanish manuscript. [72] The text again has _secundae coniugationis_. [73] This list covering the _Kami-ichidan_ and _Kami-nidan_ verbs is derived from a similarly defined sub-group of the first conjugation in the _Arte_ (28). Since the verbs _cabi_, _sabi_, and _deqi_ are in no way indicated as extraordinary in Rodriguez' presentation, I have amended the text to include their present tense form. [74] The text reads for this gloss _fucore afficior_. The proper word is _mucore_ 'mould,' with the literal translation being 'I am affected by mould.' [75] The _Dictionarium_ has this verb listed as _kami-nidan_, _xij_, _uru_, and therefore not exceptional. [76] Cf. _Arte_ (7) where a similar list is presented. [77] For the source of Collado's description of the future tense cf. _Arte_ (7v). [78] The text reads _secundae coniugationis_. [79] Rodriguez more correctly has this rule as the root plus _i_ or _yo_; e.g., _aguei_ or _agueyo_. The form _aguei_ is used by Collado in the construction of the optative below. [80] This form is correct but does not follow his rule for the formation of the imperative (see note 79). [81] Rodriguez has _baquemono_ 'evil spirit' and the Spanish manuscript _baqemono_, rather than _banguemono_ 'soothsayer.' [82] Extracted from Rodriguez' version of a sentence in the Amakusa edition of Esop's Fables (p. 417). The original reads, _Arutoqi Xantho chinsui xite yraruru tocoroye, fitoga qite daicaino vxiuouo fitocuchino nomi tçucusaruru michiga ar[vo]cato tôni_,... 'One time when Xantho [Esop's master] was drunk, a man came and asked if there was a way to drink all the waters of the ocean in one swallow....' it is abbreviated by Collado in such a way as to obscure the construction. [83] Also apparently extracted from the _Esopo_ (p. 477). The original has, ... _ri[vo]b[vo]ni tachiuacarete yru tocoroni qitçunega yosocara coreuo mite, futatçuno nacani vocareta fittçu jiuo totte cur[vo]ta_, 'when they [two lions] had gone their separate ways, the fox, seeing this from afar, took the sheep which had been between the two of them and ate it.' By changing _ri[vo]b[vo]_ to _nhóbó_ Collado created a less than satisfactory example. [84] Modeled on _Iyeuo idzuru tocorouo cubiuo quiri votoita_ 'when he went outside his head was cut off.' [85] Modeled on _Missauo asobasaruru tocoroye vôjei faxe atçumatta_ 'when mass was being celebrated, many came running and gathered around.' [86] Apparently modelled after _Arte_ (20v) _nantomo voxiare caxi_ 'whatever you say,' with the imperative formation again confounded. [87] Rodriguez (25v) specifies the location of this usage as Ch[=u]goku, Bungo, Hakata, and other _Ximo_ districts. [88] This example, together with _so zonze na_ below, reflects the loss of a distinction between _z_ and _j_ which was taking place during this period. [89] The text has _secundae coniugationis_. [90] The _Arte_ (27) records here _aguenedomo_, _aguenuto m[vo]xedomo_, _aguezutomo_, _aguenebatote_, and _agueidemo_. Neither _aguenaidemo_ nor the participle _aguenaide_, below, are found in the _Arte_, though they are attested to elsewhere. Cf. Yuzawa K[=o]kichir[=o], _Edo kotoba no kenky[=u]_ (Tokyo, 1954), p. 626. [91] This rule, derived from Rodriguez (_Arte_, 29), is misformulated by Collado. Rodriguez' rule is correct; change the _nu_ of the negative present to _i_. It is formulated correctly for the third conjugation, below. [92] Collado's rule clearly confuses the formulation of the present with that of the future. Significantly in the _Arte_ Rodriguez never refers to the future forms of any verb other than his model _narai_. If Collado had had access to the _Arte Breve_ he would have found (41) the following principal parts for _vomoi_; _ vomoi_, _vomô_, _vomôta_, _vomov[vo]_, _vomoye_. The only other use in the _Ars Grammaticae_ of this form is on page 62 where Collado has the incorrect form _vomovô_. The manuscript does not record this form. [93] Although Collado's transcription permits this rule to yield the appropriate forms, it obscures the fact that the final _i_ of the root is a vowel, while the _i_ of the imperative is a semivowel. Rodriguez' transcription better reflects the phonological facts; _naraye_, _vomoye_, and _cuye_. [94] This completes Collado's treatment of the third negative conjugation. The two paragraphs which follow are part of his treatment of the substantive verb. There is no section heading for the affirmative substantive verb; and clearly a portion of the text has been deleted. The Spanish manuscript (cf. [=O]tsuka's 1957 edition, p. 45) includes a new section which begins by recording the following substantive verb forms; _ari:aru_, _gozari:gozaru_, _i:iru_, and _vori:voru_. [95] Collado's presentation of the substantive verbs is obscure. The text reads: _Verba verò substantiua sunt_, gozaru, gozaranu, voru, uori nai, dea _vel_ gia: deuanai, aru:aranu, _vel_, gozaranu uoru ùôrinai, _&_ .... The translation attempts to punctuate the list to reflect the contrast between affirmative and negative forms. The main confusion is the apparent effort to contrast _voru_ and _vorinai_. _Voru_ (glossed by the supplement of the _Vocabulario_ as _estar_, and used in the _Dictionarium_ as the gloss for _existo_, _etc._) is not used by Rodriguez in the _Arte_. _Vorinai_ (unglossed in the dictionaries) is clearly defined by Rodriguez as the negative of the polite verb _voriaru_, which is derived by him from _von iri+aru_ (_Arte_, 165v). Possibly Collado had intended to contrast _voru_ with _voranu_ and _voriaru_ with _vorinai_ but confounded the two pairs and then repeated his error at the end of the list; or again he may, in the absence of Rodriguez' guidance, have simply misunderstood the matter. Putting the alternative forms aside, the list should read _gozaru:gozaranu_, _vori aru:vori nai_, _gia:devanai_, _aru:aranu_, and _voru:voranu_. Collado's treatment is patterned only loosely after the _Arte_ (2v-6v). [96] Collado seems to be unaware of the irregularity of _vonaji_. [97] Collado is following the general rule established on p. 10 for such forms as _caij_. He might better have followed Rodriguez who would transcribe _canax[vu]te_, as do we. [98] The missing 'closed o' aside, Collado's transcription of this form with an _n_ is indicative of the clarity with which he perceived the nasalization in this context. [99] Cf. _Arte_ (18v-19v). [100] The text reads _cú vaau ni voite va_, with the errata changing the verb to _cuvazu_. [101] This historically inaccurate rule is derived from the _Arte_ (18v). [102] In the one example of this construction, on page 62, Collado has the form _tovazunba_. [103] The original is in the _soro_ style; _I[vo]j[vo]ni voiteua uquetori m[vo]subequ soro._ [104] Cf. _Arte_ (19v). [105] Here and throughout the section Collado transcribes as _ro_ the potential particle which should correctly be written _ró_ (cf. _Arte_, 11v). It will be noticed that all but one instance of the 'open o' on p. 35 of the text has been left unmarked. [106] Collado has derived this list from the _Arte_ (45-47). His terminology is, however, rather misleading. What he classifies as _verba irregularia_ are those which Rodriguez considers deponent, that is _verbo defectiuo_, with the term _verbo irregular_ being used by Rodriguez for the adjective. Given this misunderstanding Collado begins his list with an explanation of the irregularities of _qi,uru_. This verb is on Rodriguez' list only because "it lacks certain forms in the affirmative" (45v). Rodriguez has a list of 43 deponent verbs, beginning with _tari_, from which Collado has selected the first 14 and then a few from the remainder. [107] In the restricted context of an adjectival; cf. modern _arayuru koto_. [108] Cf. _Arte_ (45v) where Rodriguez transcribes _vreyeyo_. [109] Loc. cit. Rodriguez presents _vreôru_ as an alternative form for _vreô_ in the present tense and then selects that variant for the infinitive. [110] Formation (_formatio_) is to be understood here in the sense of derivation, and diversity (_differentia_) in the sense of class membership. [111] The opening paragraphs of this section follow the _Arte_ (68-70 and 96-108v). The list of particles, beginning with _maraxi_, follows 160-168. [112] The text, here and in the next sentence, reads _secundae coningationis_. [113] The form _dojucu_ is incorrect. It is taken by [=O]tsuka to be _d[=o]shuku_ 'a person living in the same house.' The _Vocabulario_ records the item _dôjucu_ 'a young boy who serves a priest.' _Dôjucu_ best fits Collado's translation. [114] The text again reads _secundae coniugationis_. [115] Cf. _Arte_ (160-164) from which this list and the following material have been derived. [116] Throughout his treatment of the respect language Collado glosses his verb forms in the first person, even though that translation might be inappropriate to any context. [117] Rodriguez (_Arte_, 162v) specifies the distribution of _vo_ and _go_, using _gosacu atta_ as his example of the construction in context of a Chinese vocabulary item. Collado does not refer to this distinction. [118] The text reads _secundae coniugationis_. [119] The text reads _secundae coniugationis_. [120] [=O]tsuka (1957) suggests _maraxi_ is correct and alters the example. Since the list begins with _maraxi_, I assume the error to be in the citation. [121] The material for this section is derived from the _Arte_ (164v-168). [122] While the material for this section is drawn from various sections of the _Arte_, the bulk of the particles and their descriptions are derived from Rodriguez' treatment of postpositional (73-77) and adverbial constructions (112v-125). [123] Rodriguez' list (77v) runs as follows; _vchi_, _voi_, _faxe_, _ai_, _tori_, _mexi_, _tçui_, and _voxi_. On the basis of Collado's examples _voxi_ should have been included in his list. [124] Collado's transcription _qinpen_ is phonemically correct while being phonetically less accurate than Rodriguez' _quimpen_. [125] Collado has altered Rodriguez' version from _Nippon_, even though the _Dictionarium_ glosses _consuetudo japonica_ as _Nippon catagui_. [126] Collado, in the _Dictionarium_ and here, prefers _mmu_ to _uma_. [127] This particle is not described in the _Arte_. [128] Rodriguez (_Arte_, 116) records _Core coso yocar[vo]zure_ and states that in this context _coso_ has the same meaning as _Queccu_ and _Cayette_. [129] Cf. the _Arte_ (117) where the list is given as _Reba_, _Ni_, _Tomo_, the potential, and _Te_. [130] Rodriguez' version runs _Iesu Christo fitono vontocoroua_. (For Collado's use of _reduplicatiuus_ see note 53.) [131] As the first example indicates, the _zzu_ variant is not restricted to the negative preterit, but is the form which appears for _da_ in all contexts, as here with the preterit of _iomu_. [132] In the absence of other examples it is not possible to determine if Collado assumed the present tense form to be _iuru_ or _uru_. The correction here follows the spelling used consistently in the _Arte_. [133] Both Collado and Rodriguez agree that verbs ending in _tai_ govern the accusative case; cf. _Nanigaxiuo yobitai_ (_Arte_, 14v). [134] The text reads _secunda persona_. [135] Rodriguez has _Vatacuxiua nantomo buchôfôde tof[vo] ga gozanai_ [... _buchôf[vo]de_ ...]. [136] Rodriguez uses the transcription _gor[vo]jerarei_ in the example from which this sentence is derived. (The ten other occurrences in the _Arte_ have _goran_.) The _Dictionarium_ uses only _goron_, while the _Vocabulario_ lists both _goran_ and _goron_. The Spanish manuscript has _goran_. [137] Rodriguez has _mairade canauanu_. [138] The _Arte_ has the plain form _mair[vo]cotode attaredomo_. [139] The _Arte_ has _mairumajiqueredomo_. [140] Perhaps an attempt to follow the rule, established in the syntax below, that states the _v_ of the accusative particle is lost after _n_. If this is the intent, the comma is in error. [141] Rodriguez treats adverbs in two sections of the _Arte_; under the parts of speech (73v-77), and under the syntax (113-125). As has been observed in the introduction, there is little consistancy of classification between Rodriguez and Collado in this area of grammatical description. [142] The interrogatives are derived from the _Arte_ (110v) and are presented in substantially the same order. The adverbial particles which begin with _uie_ are taken from (140-148v) and classified by Rodriguez as _posposiçao_. [143] The errata has; page 50, line 10, _doco_ read _coco_. This would require the _doco zo_ above to read _coco zo_. It seems that the errata should have read; page 50, line 16, which would have corrected this error. The punctuation is not corrected by the errata. [144] Rodriguez has the complete version; _Fitocuchi futacuchi c[vu] cotoua c[vu]ta vchideua nai_. [145] Rodriguez uses _vonna_ for _vonago_. [146] The material for this section is derived from the _Arte_ (74v and 76v). [147] Rodriguez has _Ayamari nai vyeua_, ... [148] For the temporal interrogatives cf. _Arte_ (89v-90v) and for the remaining forms 107-107v. [149] Cf. the _Dictionarium_ under _cras_. [150] The _Vocabulario_ has _sãnuru_ and _sannuru_ as the _ombin_ form of the attributive perfective _sarinuru_. [151] Cf. _Arte_ (74v). [152] The Spanish manuscript has _iya iya_. [153] Cf. _Arte_ (74v). [154] Cf. _Arte_ (75, 94v, and 123v-124v). [155] Cf. _Arte_ (94v) _Quixoua ano fito fodono gacux[vo]deua nai._ [156] Cf. _Arte_ (95 and 141). [157] Cf. _Arte_ (75). [158] The _Dictionarium_ has a selection of a dozen intensifying adverbs listed under _valde_. [159] Cf. _Arte_ (74v, 75, and 76). [160] Cf. _Arte_ (74, 75, and 75v). [161] The _Dictionarium_ also has the spelling _moxi_ which suggests that Collado perceived a different vowel quantity than Rodriguez who has _m[vo]xi_, as does the _Vocabulario_. [162] The Latin particle is _nonne_, which expects an affirmative answer. [163] Rodriguez, and consequently Doi (_Nihon daibunten_, p. 449), have _xidai_ for _xisai_. The original source is the _Esopo no Fabulas_ where on p. 493 the form is _xisai_. [164] While the material for this section has been drawn from various portions of the _Arte_, Rodriguez handles the bulk of the matters dealt with here on 106v-108v and 140-148v. [165] The text is not clear at this point. It reads: Tame, _significat ni vel erga: v.g._ ... where one would expect: Tame _vel_ ni _significat erga: v.g._ ... [=O]tsuka translates this passage as if it were the later, as do I. [166] Collado has recast into the colloquial a quote from the _Shikimoku_. Rodriguez records: _Mata daiquanni itatteua ichininnomi sadamubequi nari_. [167] The text reads: itatte _v.g._ totte.... where the _v.g._ is clearly a misprint of _vel_. [168] Cf. _Arte_ (130-137). [169] This item is the only one in this paragraph which Rodriguez does not list as a _casane cotoba_ on 134v of the _Arte_. Collado is apparently interpreting this construction as a repetition of two adverbs, as for example _coco caxico_. If so, the form should be spelled _vomoxirô_, _vocaxiú_ (if we follow his rule for the formation of adverbs from _ij_ ending adjectives). However, the form which he seems to be recording is more likely the compound adverb which is listed in the _Vocabulario_ as _vomoxirovocax[vu]_ and glossed as _contemporizando de boa maneira_ 'temporizing in a carefree manner.' The spelling that we suggest is derived from the attested lexical item without the application of Collado's formational rules. [170] Cf. _Arte_ (125-130v). [171] This interjection, together with _hat_ below, are the only uses of initial _h_ found in the description. Rodriguez transcribes the latter item as _at_ or _vat_ (_Arte_, 127) which suggests a close relationship between the labial and glottal aspirates. [172] Rodriguez has _Benquei satemo yasaxij yatçubaraya_. [173] Rodriguez has: ... _nituaye b[vo]no saxivorosu_. The entire passage would be, 'Benkei, seeing this, thought, "Oh, this isn't very important," and dropped the stick into the garden.' which Rodriguez explains to mean being sorry for not paying sufficient attention to a matter. [174] The material for this section is derived from various sections in Book II of the _Arte_. [175] Matthew, 6:24. [176] Rodriguez has the spelling _touazumba_. In transcribing the form Collado failed to follow the rule he established in his treatment of conditional constructions. [177] The model for this sentence appears to be _Arte_ (62): _Ichidan medzuraxij yenoco, que nag[vo], uquino gotoqu xir[vo]_ [_sic_], _me curô, cauo icanimo airaxijuo cureta._ If this is the source of Collado's example, he is clearly demonstrating his sensitivity to the nasalization of such items such as _nag[vo]_. The _Dictionarium_ under _longus_ has _nagai_. [178] Collado's transcription is unable accurately to express the proper phonological, or morphological, form of _shin'i_ 'indignation.' He would have been well advised to follow Rodriguez' model and transcribe this item as _xiny_ with the specification that consonant plus _y_ indicates a morphological juncture. [179] Rodriguez has the spelling _Quiso_, which agrees with the _Amakusaban Heike_ (p. 239), the ultimate source of the sentence. Collado's spelling in the translation is _quiuzo_. The Spanish manuscript has _Kiso_. [180] One might expect the more literal 'I do not believe that it will be finished,' but Collado has _credo quod non finietur_. [181] This rule, which might more appropriately have been included with the phonology, is not followed in Collado's description, with the possible exception of p. 48 where the same construction is apparently used. [182] Collado here demonstrates the absorbitive capacity of Latin as he creates an accusative singular adjective from the past attributive of the verb _kobu_. [183] The use of _abiru_, where one would expect _aburu_, may be a simple typographical error or evidence that Collado accepted the shift from _ni-dan_ to _ichi-dan katsuy[=o]_ as unworthy of notice. Rodriguez (_Arte_, 101v) has _midzuuo aburu_. [184] This list is derived from the _Arte_ (101v-102v). From _abi,uru_ on, the list is in the same order as that made by Rodriguez. _Fanaruru_, _zzuru_, _nosquru_, _noru_, _vovaru_, and _mairu_ are Collado's contributions. [185] Cf. _Arte_ (101v). [186] Cf. _Arte_ (100). [187] Cf. _Arte_ (98). [188] Cf. _Arte_ (104). [189] Cf. _Arte_ (64 and 79). [190] The material presented in this section is gleaned from the exhaustive treatment of the numerical system which makes up the last 20 leaves of Rodriguez' grammar. [191] This compound does not follow the rule, since _cu_ is not a _iomi_ numeral. See also _cu ninai_ below. [192] Rodriguez has _fitoi_ or _fifitoi_ (Arte, 228v). [193] While this form fits the general rule for combining counters and days, Rodriguez (_Arte_, 228v) has _t[vo]ca_, which is a misprint for _tôca_, cf. Doi, _Daibunten_, p. 818. [194] Spelled with a tilde, _sãguat_, as are all the other forms before _guat_. [195] For the _s[vo]_ and _sa_ allomorph of _san_ cf. _Arte_ (173v). [196] Rodriguez gives the following equivalents in the monetary system on 217-217v of the _Arte_: ... ten _Rin_ in one _Fun_, ten _Fun_ in one _Momme_, one thousand _Momme_ in one _Quamme_. [197] The text is confused at this point. It runs: Ixxacu, _unus palmus seu tertia quam Hispania vocant_ sanjacu. _tres_, ... [198] The text has _culus_ 'posterior,' but the errata changes the word to _anus_. The original seems closer to the Japanese. [199] The examples here lag one behind the glosses. [200] Here and elsewhere Collado combines homophonous enumerators which Rodriguez keeps distinct. Cf. _Arte_ (220-223v) for an extensive list of enumerators. [201] Cf. _Arte_ (159-159v). [202] This rule, apparently an invention of Collado's, has no precedent in Rodriguez or in linguistic derivation. The _n_ in this construction is the contracted form of the classical _mu_, the source for what Collado calls the future. [203] These forms might better have been presented as _nari,i_ and _qeri,i_ to indicate that the sentence-ending forms are _nari_ and _qeri_. * * * * * Corrections made to printed original. p. 14. `BOOK II. The Rudamenta' corrected to `Rudimenta'. Ib. `While the Arts Grammaticae presents ...' corrected to `Ars Grammaticae'. p. 16. `booklet which teaches Canaduzcai' changed to much other uses as `Canadzucai'. p. 17. `Tassuru, taxxita, taxxeò ...' the last amended to match the paradigm `taxxeô'. p. 19. `Motoneô.' in future column, amended to fit the paradigm `Motomeô'. p. 20. Heading, `Conjuctive' corrected to `Conjunctive'. p. 21. Table of irregular verbs, the left hand column has separate entries `A' and `Bi', these appear to mean a single entry `Abi'. p. 24. `Those ending in çu change to T[vo]' - `to' omitted in text. Ib. `thus governs the genative' corrected to `genitive'. p. 116. `There are ennumerable nouns' corrected to `innumerable'. p. 117. `a visable thing' corrected to `visible'. p. 118. `primative pronouns' corrected to `primitive'. p. 132. `I did not decend.' corrected to `descend'. p. 136. `vomi:vomô', from the context and other references (and the Latin text) the root should be `vomoi'. p. 179. `xi ban me forth' corrected to `fourth'. Footnote 27 a is applied to `Nobi', this should be `Vabi'. Footnote 62. `The term is also found in the introduction to the Vorabulario', corrected to `Vocabulario'. Footnote 106. `verbo defectino' (from Portuguese text) corrected to `defectiuo' as a more likely corruption than from `defectivo'. Footnote 109. `selects that varient' corrected to `variant'. Footnote 131. `the zzu varient' corrected to `variant'. Footnote 169. `temperizing in a carefree manner' corrected to `temporizing'. Footnote 169. `Spelled with a tilda' corrected to `tilde'. 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