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Title: An Advanced English Grammar with Exercises

Author: George Lyman Kittredge
        Frank Edgar Farley

Release Date: May 29, 2014 [EBook #45814]

Language: English

Character set encoding: UTF-8

*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AN ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR ***




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ENGLISH GRAMMAR

PART ONE
THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN THE SENTENCE

Summary. The Sentence: Subject and Predicate; Kinds of Sentences.—Use of words in the Sentence: the Eight Parts of Speech; Infinitives and Participles.—Comparative Importance of the Parts of Speech in the Sentence: the Subject Noun (or Simple Subject); the Predicate Verb (or Simple Predicate); Compound Subject and Predicate.—Substitutes for the Parts of Speech: Phrases; Clauses; Compound and Complex Sentences.

THE SENTENCE

1. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought.

• Fire burns.
• Wolves howl.
• Rain is falling.
• Charles is courageous.
• Patient effort removes mountains.
• London is the largest city in the world.
• A man who respects himself should never condescend to use slovenly language.

Some of these sentences are short, expressing a very simple thought; others are comparatively long, because the thought is more complicated and therefore requires more words for its expression. But every one of them, whether short or long, is complete in itself. It comes to a definite end, and is followed by a full pause.

2. Every sentence, whether short or long, consists of two parts,—a subject and a predicate.

The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that is spoken of; the predicate is that which is said of the subject.

Thus, in the first example in § 1, the subject is fire and the predicate is burns. In the third, the subject is rain; the predicate, is falling. In the last, the subject is a man who respects himself; the predicate, should never condescend to use slovenly language.

Either the subject or the predicate may consist of a single word or of a number of words. But neither the subject by itself nor the predicate by itself, however extended, is a sentence. The mere mention of a thing (fire) does not express a complete thought. Neither does a mere assertion (burns), if we neglect to mention the person or thing about which the assertion is made. Thus it appears that both a subject and a predicate are necessary to make a sentence.

3. Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.

1. A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact.

• Dickens wrote “David Copperfield.”
• The army approached the city.

2. An interrogative sentence asks a question.

• Who is that officer?
• Does Arthur Moore live here?

3. An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request.

• Open the window.
• Pronounce the vowels more distinctly.

4. An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some other emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry.

• How calm the sea is!
• What a noise the engine makes!

A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence is also exclamatory, if it is uttered in an intense or excited tone of voice.

4. In imperative sentences, the subject (thou or you) is almost always omitted, because it is understood by both speaker and hearer without being expressed.

Such omitted words, which are present (in idea) to the minds of both speaker and hearer, are said to be “understood.” Thus, in “Open the window,” the subject is “you (understood).” If expressed, the subject would be emphatic: as,—“You open the window.”

5. The subject of a sentence commonly precedes the predicate, but sometimes the predicate precedes.

• Here comes Tom.
• Next came Edward.
• Over went the carriage.

A sentence in which the predicate precedes the subject is said to be in the inverted order. This order is especially common in interrogative sentences.

• Where is your boat?
• When was your last birthday?
• Whither wander you?—Shakspere.

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

6. If we examine the words in any sentence, we observe that they have different tasks or duties to perform in the expression of thought.

Savage beasts roamed through the forest.

In this sentence, beasts and forest are the names of objects; roamed asserts action, telling us what the beasts did; savage describes the beasts; through shows the relation in thought between forest and roamed; the limits the meaning of forest, showing that one particular forest is meant. Thus each of these words has its special office (or function) in the sentence.

7. In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are divided into eight classes called parts of speech,—namely, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

I. NOUNS

8. A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.

II. PRONOUNS

9. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person, place, or thing without naming it.

In “I am ready,” the pronoun I is a convenient substitute for the speaker’s name. In “You have forgotten your umbrella,” the pronouns you and your designate the person to whom one is speaking.

Since pronouns stand for nouns, they enable us to talk about a person, place, or thing without constantly repeating the name.

10. Nouns and pronouns are called substantives.

Nouns and pronouns are very similar in their use. The difference between them is merely that the noun designates a person, place, or thing by naming it, and that the pronoun designates, but does not name. Hence it is convenient to have a general term (substantive) to include both these parts of speech.

11. The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.

• Frank introduced the boys to his father. [Frank is the antecedent of the pronoun his.]
• Eleanor is visiting her aunt.
• The book has lost its cover.
• The trappers sat round their camp fire.
• Washington and Franklin served their country in different ways. [Their has two antecedents, connected by and.]

III. ADJECTIVES

12. An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.⁵

This it usually does by indicating some quality.

An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.

13. An adjective limits a substantive by restricting the range of its meaning.

The noun box, for example, includes a great variety of objects. If we say wooden box, we exclude boxes of metal, of paper, etc. If we use a second adjective (small) and a third (square), we limit the size and the shape of the box.

Most adjectives (like wooden, square, and small) describe as well as limit. Such words are called descriptive adjectives.

We may, however, limit the noun box to a single specimen by means of the adjective this or that or the, which does not describe, but simply points out, or designates. Such words are called definitive adjectives.⁶

IV. VERBS

14. A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action) concerning a person, place, or thing.⁷

• The wind blows.
• The horses ran.
• The fire blazed.
• Her jewels sparkled.
• Tom climbed a tree.
• The dynamite exploded.

Some verbs express state or condition rather than action.

• The treaty still exists.
• The book lies on the table.
• Near the church stood an elm.
• My aunt suffers much from headache.

15. A group of words may be needed, instead of a single verb, to make an assertion.

A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.

• You will see.
• The tree has fallen.
• We might have invited her.
• Our driver has been discharged.

16. Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called auxiliary (that is, “aiding”) verbs, because they help other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind.

Thus, in “You will see,” the auxiliary verb will helps see to express future action; in “We might have invited her,” the auxiliaries might and have help invited to express action that was possible in past time.

The auxiliary verbs are is (are, was, were, etc.), may, can, must, might, shall, will, could, would, should, have, had, do, did. Their forms and uses will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.

The auxiliary verb regularly comes first in a verb-phrase, and may be separated from the rest of it by some other word or words.

• Where was Washington born?
• The boat was slowly but steadily approaching.

17. Is (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the subject.

• 1. Gold is a metal.
• 2. Charles is my friend’s name.
• 3. The colors of this butterfly are brilliant.
• 4. Iron becomes red in the fire.
• 5. Our condition seemed desperate.
• 6. Bertram proved a good friend in this emergency.
• 7. My soul grows sad with troubles.—Shakspere.

In the first sentence, the verb is not only makes an assertion, but it also connects the rest of the predicate (a metal) with the subject (gold) in such a way that a metal serves as a description or definition of gold.

In sentences 4–7, becomes, seemed, proved, and grows are similarly used.

In such sentences is and other verbs that are used for the same purpose are called copulative (that is, “joining”) verbs.

Is in this use is often called the copula, that is, the “joiner” or “link.”

The forms of the verb is are very irregular. Among the commonest are: am, is, are, was, were, and the verb-phrases has been, have been, had been, shall be, will be.⁸

V. ADVERBS

18. An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

To modify a word is to change or affect its meaning in some way. Thus in “The river fell rapidly,” the adverb rapidly modifies the verb fell by showing how the falling took place. In “I am never late,” “This is absolutely true,” “That is too bad,” the italicized words are adverbs modifying adjectives; in “He came very often,” “He spoke almost hopefully,” “The river fell too rapidly,” they are adverbs modifying other adverbs.

Most adverbs answer the question “How?” “When?” “Where?” or “To what degree or extent?”

19. Observe that adverbs modify verbs in much the same way in which adjectives modify nouns.

Adjectives	Adverbs
A bright fire burned.	The fire burned brightly.
A fierce wind blew.	The wind blew fiercely.

A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is called a modifier.

Adjectives and adverbs, then, are both modifiers. Adjectives modify substantives; adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

VI. PREPOSITIONS

20. A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.

The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object.

A preposition is said to govern its object.

In “The surface of the water glistened,” of makes it clear that surface belongs with water. In “Philip is on the river,” on shows Philip’s position with respect to the river. In, or near, or beyond would have indicated a different relation. Water is the object of the preposition of, and river is the object of the preposition on.

21. A preposition often has more than one object.

• Over hill and dale he ran.
• He was filled with shame and despair.

VII. CONJUNCTIONS

22. A conjunction connects words or groups of words.

A conjunction differs from a preposition in having no object, and in indicating a less definite relation between the words which it connects.

In “Time and tide wait for no man,” “The parcel was small but heavy,” “He wore a kind of doublet or jacket,” the conjunctions and, but, or, connect single words,—time with tide, small with heavy, doublet with jacket. In “Do not go if you are afraid,” “I came because you sent for me,” “Take my key, but do not lose it,” “Sweep the floor and dust the furniture,” each conjunction connects the entire group of words preceding it with the entire group following it.

VIII. INTERJECTIONS

23. An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling.

Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the groups of words in which they stand; hence their name, which means “thrown in.”

THE SAME WORD AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH

24. The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of speech it belongs.

The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another.

Words of entirely separate origin, meaning, and use sometimes look and sound alike: as in “The minstrel sang a plaintive lay,” and “He lay on the ground.” But the following examples (§ 25) show that the same word may have more than one kind of grammatical office (or function). It is the meaning which we give to a word in the sentence that determines its classification as a part of speech.

25. The chief classes of words thus variously used are (1) nouns and adjectives, (2) nouns and verbs, (3) adjectives and adverbs, (4) adjectives and pronouns, (5) adverbs and prepositions.

I. Nouns and Adjectives

Nouns	Adjectives
Rubber comes from South America.	This wheel has a rubber tire.
That brick is yellow.	Here is a brick house.
The rich have a grave responsibility.	A rich merchant lives here.

The first two examples show how words that are commonly nouns may be used as adjectives; the third shows how words that are commonly adjectives may be used as nouns.

II. Nouns and Verbs

Nouns	Verbs
Hear the wash of the tide.	Wash those windows.
Give me a stamp.	Stamp this envelope.
It is the call of the sea.	Ye call me chief.

III. Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives	Adverbs
That is a fast boat.	The snow is melting fast.
Draw a straight line.	The arrow flew straight.
Early comers get good seats.	Tom awoke early.

For an explanation of the form of these adverbs, see § 191.

IV. Adjectives and Pronouns

Adjectives	Pronouns
This man looks unhappy.	This is the sergeant.
That book is a dictionary.	That is a kangaroo.
Each day brings its opportunity.	I received a dollar from each.

For further study of this class of words, see pp. 62–65.

V. Adverbs and Prepositions

Adverbs	Prepositions
Jill came tumbling after.	He returned after the accident.
We went below.	Below us lay the valley.
The weeds sprang up.	We walked up the hill.

Miscellaneous examples of variation are the following:—

Noun.	The calm lasted for three days.
Adjective.	Calm words show quiet minds.
Verb.	Calm your angry friend.

Noun.	Wrong seldom prospers.
Adjective.	You have taken the wrong road.
Adverb.	Edward often spells words wrong.
Verb.	You wrong me by your suspicions.
Noun.	The outside of the castle is gloomy.
Adjective.	We have an outside stateroom.
Adverb.	The messenger is waiting outside.
Preposition.	I shall ride outside the coach.
Adjective.	That boat is a sloop.
Pronoun.	That is my uncle.
Conjunction.	You said that you would help me.
Adjective.	Neither road leads to Utica.
Pronoun.	Neither of us arrived in time.
Conjunction.	Neither Tom nor I was late.
Preposition.	I am waiting for the train.
Conjunction.	You have plenty of time, for the train is late.
Interjection.	Hurrah! the battle is won.
Noun.	I heard a loud hurrah.
Verb.	The enemy flees. Our men hurrah.

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES

26. Two classes of verb-forms illustrate in a striking way the fact that the same word may belong to different parts of speech; for they really belong to two different parts of speech at one and the same time. These are the infinitive (which is both verb and noun) and the participle (which is both verb and adjective).

27. Examples of the infinitive may be seen in the following sentences:

• To struggle was useless.
• To escape is impossible.
• To exercise regularly preserves the health.

To struggle is clearly a noun, for (1) it is the subject of the sentence, and (2) the noun effort or exertion might be put in the place of to struggle. Similarly, the noun escape might be substituted for to escape; and, in the third sentence, regular exercise (a noun modified by an adjective) might be substituted for to exercise regularly.

But these three forms (to struggle, to escape, and to exercise) are also verbs, for they express action, and one of them (to exercise) is modified by an adverb (regularly). Such forms, therefore, are noun-forms of the verb. They are classed with verbs, and are called infinitives.

28. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It is commonly preceded by the preposition to, which is called the sign of the infinitive.

29. The infinitive without to is used in a great variety of verb-phrases.

• I shall go.
• John will win.
• Mary may recite.
• Jack can swim.

Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.

Note. That go, win, recite, and swim are infinitives may be seen by comparing the following sentences:—“I intend to go,” “John is sure to win,” “Mary is permitted to recite,” “Jack is able to swim.”

30. The following sentence contains two participles:—

Shattered and slowly sinking, the frigate drifted out to sea.

In this sentence, we recognize shattered as a form of the verb shatter, and sinking as a form of the verb sink. They both express action, and sinking is modified by the adverb slowly. But shattered and sinking have also the nature of adjectives, for they are used to describe the noun frigate. Such words, then, are adjective forms of the verb. They are classed as verbs, and are called participles, because they share (or participate in) the nature of adjectives.

31. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.

A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.

32. The chief classes of participles are present participles and past participles, so called from the time which they denote.

All present participles end in ing. Past participles have several different endings, which will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs (§ 334).

33. Participles are used in a variety of verb-phrases.

• Tom is coming.
• Our boat was wrecked.
• I have sent the money.
• He has brought me a letter.
• Your book is found.
• They have sold their horses.
• You have broken your watch.
• The ship had struck on the reef.

Such phrases will be studied in connection with the inflection of verbs.

Note. The double nature of the infinitive (as both verb and noun) and the participle (as both verb and adjective) almost justifies one in classifying each as a distinct part of speech (so as to make ten parts of speech instead of eight). But it is more convenient to include them under the head of verbs, in accordance with the usual practice.

SIMPLE AND COMPLETE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

34. Our survey of the eight parts of speech has shown, (1) that these have very different offices or functions in the sentence, and (2) that their functions are not of equal importance.

Clearly, the most important parts of speech are substantives (nouns and pronouns) and verbs.

Substantives enable us to name or designate persons, places, or things, and verbs enable us to make statements about them. Both substantives and verbs, then, are absolutely necessary in framing sentences. Without a substantive, there can be no subject; without a verb, there can be no predicate: and both a subject and a predicate, as we have seen, are needed to make a sentence.

Adjectives and adverbs are less important than substantives and verbs. Their function is to modify other parts of speech, that is, to change their meaning in some way. Thus adjectives modify substantives (by describing or limiting), and adverbs usually modify verbs (by indicating how, when, or where the action took place). Without substantives, there would be no use for adjectives; without verbs, there would be little use for adverbs.

Prepositions and conjunctions are also less important than substantives and verbs. Their office is to connect and to show relation. Of course, there would be no place for connectives if there were nothing to connect.

Interjections are the least important of all. They add liveliness to language, but they are not actual necessities. We could express all the thoughts that enter our minds without ever using an interjection.

35. A sentence may consist of but two words,—a noun or pronoun (the subject) and a verb (the predicate). Thus,—

Charles | swims.

Commonly, however, either the subject or the predicate, or both, will contain more than one word. Thus,—

Young Charles | swims slowly.

Here the complete subject (young Charles) consists of a noun (Charles) and an adjective (young), which describes Charles. The complete predicate consists of a verb (swims) and an adverb (slowly), which modifies swim by indicating how the action is performed. The subject noun (Charles) and the predicate verb (swims) are the chief words in the sentence, for neither could be omitted without destroying it. They form, so to speak, the frame or skeleton of the whole. Either of the two modifiers, the adjective or the adverb, or both, might be omitted, without destroying the sentence; for this would still exist as the expression of a thought (Charles swims), though the thought would be less definite and exact than it is when the modifiers are included.

36. The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun.

The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase.

The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete subject.

The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete predicate.

In each of the following sentences the complete subject and the complete predicate are separated by a vertical line, and the simple subject and the simple predicate are printed in italics:—

• The spider | spreads her web.
• The fiery smoke | rose upward in billowing volumes.
• A nameless unrest | urged me forward.
• Our frantic horses | swept round an angle of the road.
• The infirmities of age | came early upon him.
• The general feeling among the English in Bengal | was strongly in favor of the Governor General.
• Salutes | were fired from the batteries.
• The Clives | had been settled ever since the twelfth century on an estate of no great value near Market Drayton in Shropshire.
• I | have written repeatedly to Mr. Hobhouse.

37. Two or more simple subjects may be joined to make one compound subject, and two or more simple predicates to make one compound predicate.

• 1. Charles and Henry | play tennis well.
• 2. Moore and I | passed some merry days together.
• 3. Frances and she | are friends.
• 4. Hats, caps, boots, and gloves | were piled together in confusion.
• 5. The watch | sank and was lost.
• 6. The balloon | rose higher and higher and finally disappeared.
• 7. He | neither smiled nor frowned.
• 8. Snow and ice | covered the ground and made our progress difficult.

38. A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple subjects or predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions.

Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound.

In the first example in § 37, two simple subjects (Charles and Henry) are joined by the conjunction and to make a compound subject. In the fourth, four substantives (hats, caps, boots, gloves) form a series in which the last two are joined by and. In the fifth, sixth, and seventh, the predicates are compound; in the eighth, both the subject and the predicate.

39. The following conjunctions may be used to join the members of a compound subject or predicate: and (both ... and), or (either ... or; whether ... or), nor (neither ... nor).

SUBSTITUTES FOR PARTS OF SPEECH

PHRASES

40. A group of words may take the place of a part of speech

• The Father of Waters is the Mississippi.
• A girl with blue eyes stood at the window.
• You are looking well.

41. A group of connected words, not containing a subject and a predicate, is called a phrase.

A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech.

1. A phrase used as a noun is called a noun-phrase.

2. A phrase used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.

3. A phrase used as an adjective is called an adjective phrase.

4. A phrase used as an adverb is called an adverbial phrase.

In the examples in § 40, The Father of Waters is a noun-phrase; with blue eyes, an adjective phrase; at the window, an adverbial phrase; are looking, a verb-phrase.

42. Many adjective and adverbial phrases consist of a preposition and its object, with or without other words.

• Your umbrella is in the corner.
• He has a heart of oak.
• A cup with a broken handle stood on the shelf.
• My house of cards fell to the floor in a heap.

Adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and its object, with or without other words, may be called prepositional phrases.

CLAUSES—COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES

43. Phrases must be carefully distinguished from clauses. The difference is that a clause contains a subject and a predicate and a phrase does not.

44. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate.

• The lightning flashed | and | the thunder roared.
• The train started | when the bell rang.

Each of these sentences contains two clauses; but the relation between the clauses in the first sentence is very different from that between the clauses in the second.

In the first example, each of the two clauses makes a separate and distinct statement, and might stand by itself as a simple sentence,—that is, as a sentence having but one subject and one predicate. These clauses are joined by the conjunction and, which is not a part of either. No doubt the speaker feels that there is some relation in thought between the two statements, or he would not have put them together as clauses in the same sentence. But there is nothing in the form of expression to show what that relation is. In other words, the two clauses are grammatically independent, for neither of them modifies (or affects the meaning of) the other. The clauses are therefore said to be coördinate,—that is, of the same “order” or rank, and the sentence is called compound.

In the second example, on the contrary, the relation between the two clauses is indicated with precision. One clause (the train started) makes the main statement,—it expresses the chief fact. Hence it is called the main (or principal) clause. The other clause (when the bell rang) is added because the speaker wishes to modify the main verb (started) by defining the time of the action. This clause, then, is used as a part of speech. Its function is the same as that of an adverb (promptly) or an adverbial phrase (on the stroke of the bell). For this purpose alone it exists, and not as an independent statement. Hence it is called a dependent (or subordinate) clause, because it depends (that is, “hangs”) upon the main clause, and so occupies a lower or “subordinate” rank in the sentence. When thus constructed, a sentence is said to be complex.

45. An ordinary compound sentence (as we have seen in § 44) is made by joining two or more simple sentences, each of which thus becomes an independent coördinate clause.

In the same way we may join two or more complex sentences, using them as clauses to make one compound sentence:—

The train started when the bell rang, | and | Tom watched until the last car disappeared.

This sentence is manifestly compound, for it consists of two coördinate clauses (the train started when the bell rang; Tom watched until the last car disappeared) joined by and. Each of these two clauses is itself complex, for each could stand by itself as a complex sentence.

Similarly, a complex and a simple sentence may be joined as coördinate clauses to make a compound sentence.

The train started when the bell rang, | and | Tom gazed after it in despair.

Such a sentence, which is compound in its structure, but in which one or more of the coördinate clauses are complex, is called a compound complex sentence.⁹

46. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate.

A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause. All other clauses are said to be independent.

Clauses of the same order or rank are said to be coördinate.

Sentences may be simple, compound, or complex.

1. A simple sentence has but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound.

2. A compound sentence consists of two or more independent coördinate clauses, which may or may not be joined by conjunctions.

3. A complex sentence consists of two or more clauses, one of which is independent and the rest subordinate.

A compound sentence in which one or more of the coördinate clauses are complex is called a compound complex sentence.

I. Simple Sentences

• Iron rusts.
• George V is king.
• Dogs, foxes, and hares are quadrupeds. [Compound subject.]
• The defendant rose and addressed the court. [Compound predicate.]
• Merton and his men crossed the bridge and scaled the wall. [Both subject and predicate are compound.]

II. Compound Sentences

• Shakspere was born in 1564; he died in 1616. [Two coördinate clauses; no conjunction.]
• A rifle cracked, and the wolf fell dead. [Two clauses joined by the conjunction and.]
• You must hurry, or we shall lose the train. [Two clauses joined by or.]
• James Watt did not invent the steam engine, but he greatly improved it. [Two clauses joined by but.]
• Either you have neglected to write or your letter has failed to reach me. [Two clauses joined by either ... or.]

The following conjunctions may be used to join coördinate clauses: and (both ... and), or (either ... or), nor (neither ... nor), but, for.

III. Complex Sentences

Examples will be found in §§ 48–50.

Clauses as Parts of Speech

47. Subordinate clauses, like phrases, are used as parts of speech. They serve as substitutes for nouns, for adjectives, or for adverbs.

1. A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun (or substantive) clause.

2. A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an adjective clause.

3. A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial clause.

48. I. Noun (or Substantive) Clauses.

{Success | That we should succeed in this plan} is improbable.

The thought in these two sentences is the same, but in the second it is more fully expressed. In the first sentence, the subject is the noun success; in the second, the subject is the noun clause, that we should succeed in this plan. This clause is introduced by the conjunction that; the simple subject of the clause is the pronoun we, and the simple predicate is the verb-phrase should succeed. The first sentence is simple; the second is complex.

Substantive clauses are often introduced by the conjunction that.

49. II. Adjective Clauses. The following sentences illustrate the use of (1) an adjective, (2) an adjective phrase, (3) an adjective clause, as a modifier of the subject noun.

• {An honorable man | A man of honor | A man who values his honor} will not lie.
• {A seasonable word | A word in season | A word that is spoken at the right moment} may save a soul.
• {My native land | The land of my birth | The land where I was born} lies far across the sea.

The first two sentences in each group are simple, the third is complex.

50. III. Adverbial Clauses. The following sentences illustrate the use of (1) an adverb, (2) an adverbial phrase, (3) an adverbial clause, as a modifier of the predicate verb (or verb-phrase).

• The lightning struck {here. | on this spot. | where we stand.}
• Mr. Andrews lives {near. | in this neighborhood. | where you see that elm.}
• The game began {punctually. | on the stroke of one. | when the clock struck.}
• The banker will make the loan {conditionally. | on one condition. | if you endorse my note.}

The first two sentences in each group are simple, the third is complex.

51. Adjective clauses may be introduced (1) by the pronouns who, which, and that, or (2) by adverbs like where, whence, whither, when.

Adverbial clauses may be introduced (1) by the adverbs where, whither, whence, when, while, before, after, until, how, as, or (2) by the conjunctions because, though, although, if, that (in order that, so that), lest, etc.

Note. The use of phrases and clauses as parts of speech increases enormously the richness and power of language. Though English has a huge stock of words, it cannot provide a separate noun or adjective or adverb for every idea. By grouping words, however, in phrases and clauses we, in effect, make a great variety of new nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, each precisely fitted to the needs of the moment in the expression of thought.

SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS

The Sentence

1. Language is thought expressed in words.

2. To express thought words are combined into sentences.

3. A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought.

4. Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory.

(1) A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact.

(2) An interrogative sentence asks a question.

(3) An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request.

(4) An exclamatory sentence expresses surprise, grief, or some other emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry.

A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence may also be exclamatory.

Subject and Predicate

5. Every sentence consists of a subject and a predicate.

The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that is spoken of; the predicate is that which is said of the subject.

6. The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pronoun.

The simple predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb-phrase.

7. The simple subject, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete subject.

The simple predicate, with such words as explain or complete its meaning, forms the complete predicate.

8. A compound subject or predicate consists of two or more simple subjects or predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions.

Either the subject or the predicate, or both, may be compound.

The Parts of Speech

9. In accordance with their use in the sentence, words are divided into eight classes called parts of speech,—namely, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.

(1) A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.

(2) A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person, place, or thing without naming it.

Nouns and pronouns are called substantives.

The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.

(3) An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.

This it usually does by indicating some quality.

An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.

An adjective which describes is called a descriptive adjective; one which points out or designates is called a definitive adjective.

(4) A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action) concerning a person, place, or thing.

Some verbs express state or condition rather than action.

A group of words that is used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.

Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called auxiliary (that is, “aiding”) verbs, because they help other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind.

Is (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the subject. In such sentences, is and other verbs that are used for the same purpose are called copulative (that is, “joining”) verbs.

(5) An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

A word or group of words that changes or modifies the meaning of another word is called a modifier.

Adjectives and adverbs are both modifiers.

(6) A preposition is a word placed before a substantive to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.

The substantive which follows a preposition is called its object.

(7) A conjunction connects words or groups of words.

(8) An interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound expressing surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling.

10. The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of speech it belongs.

The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another.

11. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It is commonly preceded by the preposition to, which is called the sign of the infinitive.

12. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.

A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.

The chief classes of participles are present participles and past participles, so called from the time which they denote.

Substitutes for the Parts of Speech

Phrases

13. A group of connected words, not containing a subject and a predicate, is called a phrase.

A phrase is often equivalent to a part of speech.

(1) A phrase used as a noun is called a noun-phrase.

(2) A phrase used as a verb is called a verb-phrase.

(3) A phrase used as an adjective is called an adjective phrase.

(4) A phrase used as an adverb is called an adverbial phrase.

14. Adjective or adverbial phrases consisting of a preposition and its object, with or without other words, may be called prepositional phrases.

Clauses

15. A clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and that contains a subject and a predicate.

16. A clause used as a part of speech is called a subordinate clause. All other clauses are said to be independent.

17. Clauses of the same order or rank are said to be coördinate.

18. Sentences may be simple, compound, or complex.

(1) A simple sentence has but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound.

(2) A compound sentence consists of two or more independent coördinate clauses, which may or may not be joined by conjunctions.

(3) A complex sentence consists of two or more clauses, one of which is independent and the rest subordinate.

A compound sentence in which one or more of the coördinate clauses are complex is called a compound complex sentence.

19. Subordinate clauses, like phrases, are used as parts of speech. They serve as substitutes for nouns, for adjectives, or for adverbs.

(1) A subordinate clause that is used as a noun is called a noun (or substantive) clause.

(2) A subordinate clause that modifies a substantive is called an adjective clause.

(3) A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modifier is called an adverbial clause.

PART TWO
INFLECTION AND SYNTAX

CHAPTER I
INFLECTION

52. Inflection is a change of form in a word indicating some change in its meaning. A word thus changed in form is said to be inflected.

The examples show that a word may be inflected (1) by the addition of a final letter or syllable (dog, dogs; look, looked), (2) by the substitution of one letter for another (man, men), or (3) by a complete change of form (good, better, best).

53. The inflection of a substantive is called its declension; that of an adjective or an adverb, its comparison; that of a verb, its conjugation.

Note. Some forms which we regard as due to inflection are really distinct words. Thus we is regarded as a form of the pronoun I, but it is in fact an altogether different word. Such irregularities, however, are not numerous, and are properly enough included under the head of inflection.

The table below gives a summary view of inflection, and may be used for reference with the following chapters.

• Substantives (Nouns and Pronouns)
  • Gender
    • Masculine (male)
    • Feminine (female)
    • Neuter (no sex)
  • Number
    • Singular (one)
    • Plural (more than one)
  • Person
    • First (speaker)
    • Second (spoken to)
    • Third (spoken of)
  • Case
    • Nominative (subject case)
    • Possessive (ownership)
    • Objective (object case)
• Adjectives and Adverbs
  • Comparison
    • Positive Degree
    • Comparative Degree
    • Superlative Degree
• Verbs
  • Number (Verb agrees with Subject)
    • Singular
    • Plural
  • Person (Verb agrees with Subject)
    • First
    • Second
    • Third
  • Tense
    • Simple Tenses
      • Present
      • Past
      • Future
    • Compound Tenses
      • Perfect (or Present Perfect)
      • Pluperfect (or Past Perfect)
      • Future Perfect
  • Mood
    • Indicative (all six tenses)
    • Imperative (Present Tense only)
    • Subjunctive (Present, Past, Perfect, Pluperfect)
  • Voice
    • Active (Subject acts)
    • Passive (Subject receives the action)
  • Infinitives (Present and Perfect)
  • Participles (Present, Past, and Perfect)

CHAPTER II
NOUNS

CLASSIFICATION—COMMON NOUNS AND PROPER NOUNS

54. A noun is the name of a person, place, or thing.

55. Nouns are divided into two classes—proper nouns and common nouns.

1. A proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing.

2. A common noun is a name which may be applied to any one of a class of persons, places, or things.

Proper nouns begin with a capital letter; common nouns usually begin with a small letter.

Note. Although a proper noun is the name of a particular person, place, or thing, that name may be given to more than one individual. More than one man is named James; but when we say James, we think of one particular person, whom we are calling by his own name. When we say man, on the contrary, we are not calling any single person by name: we are using a noun which applies, in common, to all the members of a large class of persons.

Any word, when mentioned merely as a word, is a noun. Thus,—

And is a conjunction.

56. A common noun becomes a proper noun when used as the particular name of a ship, a newspaper, an animal, etc.

• Nelson’s flagship was the Victory.
• Give me this evening’s Herald.
• My dog is named Rover.
• The Limited Express is drawn by the Pioneer.

57. A proper noun often consists of a group of words, some of which are perhaps ordinarily used as other parts of speech.

Note. These are (strictly speaking) noun-phrases (§ 41); but, since all are particular names, they may be regarded as proper nouns.

58. A proper noun becomes a common noun when used as a name that may be applied to any one of a class of objects.

• The museum owns two Rembrandts and a Titian.
• I exchanged my old motor car for a new Halstead.
• My fountain pen is a Blake.
• Lend me your Webster.
• He was a Napoleon of finance.
• I am going to buy a Kazak.

59. Certain proper nouns have become common nouns when used in a special sense. These generally begin with a small letter.

60. A lifeless object, one of the lower animals, or any human quality or emotion is sometimes regarded as a person.

This usage is called personification, and the object, animal, or quality is said to be personified.

Each old poetic Mountain
Inspiration breathed around.—Gray.

Who’ll toll the bell?
“I,” said the Bull,
“Because I can pull.”

His name was Patience.—Spenser.

Smiles on past Misfortune’s brow
Soft Reflection’s hand can trace;
And o’er the cheek of Sorrow throw
A melancholy grace.—Gray.

Love is and was my lord and king,
And in his presence I attend.—Tennyson.

Time gently shakes his wings.—Dryden.

The name of anything personified is regarded as a proper noun and is usually written with a capital letter.

Note. The rule for capitals is not absolute. When the personification is kept up for only a sentence or two (as frequently in Shakspere), the noun often begins with a small letter.

SPECIAL CLASSES OF NOUNS

61. An abstract noun is the name of a quality or general idea.

Many abstract nouns are derived from adjectives.

62. A collective noun is the name of a group, class, or multitude, and not of a single person, place, or thing.

The same noun may be abstract in one of its meanings, collective in another.

• They believe in fraternity. [Abstract.]
• The student joined a fraternity. [Collective.]

63. Abstract nouns are usually common, but become proper when the quality or idea is personified (§ 60).

Collective nouns may be either proper or common.

64. A noun consisting of two or more words united is called a compound noun.

As the examples show, the parts of a compound noun may be joined (with or without a hyphen) or written separately. In some words usage is fixed, in others it varies. The hyphen, however, is less used than formerly.

Note. The first part of a compound noun usually limits the second after the manner of an adjective. Indeed, many expressions may be regarded either (1) as compounds or (2) as phrases containing an adjective and a noun. Thus railway conductor may be taken as a compound noun, or as a noun (conductor) limited by an adjective (railway).

INFLECTION OF NOUNS

65. In studying the inflection of nouns and pronouns we have to consider gender, number, person, and case.

1. Gender is distinction according to sex.

2. Number is that property of substantives which shows whether they indicate one person or thing or more than one.

3. Person is that property of substantives which shows whether they designate (1) the speaker, (2) the person spoken to, or (3) the person or thing spoken of.

4. Substantives have inflections of case to indicate their grammatical relations to verbs, to prepositions, or to other substantives.

These four properties of substantives are included under inflection for convenience. In strictness, however, nouns are inflected for number and case only. Gender is shown in various ways,—usually by the meaning of the noun or by the use of some pronoun. Person is indicated by the sense, by the pronouns used, and by the form of the verb.

I. GENDER

66. Gender is distinction according to sex.

Nouns and pronouns may be of the masculine, the feminine, or the neuter gender.

1. A noun or pronoun denoting a male being is of the masculine gender.

2. A noun or pronoun denoting a female being is of the feminine gender.

3. A noun or pronoun denoting a thing without animal life is of the neuter gender.

A noun or pronoun which is sometimes masculine and sometimes feminine is often said to be of common gender.

67. A pronoun must be in the same gender as the noun for which it stands or to which it refers.

Each of the following pronouns is limited to a single gender:

• Masculine: he, his, him.
• Feminine: she, her, hers.
• Neuter: it, its.

All other pronouns vary in gender.

• Robert greeted his employer. [Masculine.]
• A mother passed with her child. [Feminine.]
• This tree has lost its foliage. [Neuter.]
• Who laughed? [Masculine or feminine.]
• How do you do? [Masculine or feminine.]
• They have disappeared. [Masculine, feminine, or neuter.]
• I do not care for either. [Masculine, feminine, or neuter.]

68. A neuter noun may become masculine or feminine by personification (§ 60).

Thou who didst waken from his summer dreams
The blue Mediterranean.—Shelley.

Stern daughter of the Voice of God!
O Duty!—Wordsworth.

Nature from her seat
Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woe.—Milton.

69. In speaking of certain objects, such as a ship and the moon, it is customary to use she and her. In like manner, he is used in speaking of the sun and of most animals, without reference to sex, although it often designates an insect or other small creature, and even a very young child.

Who and which are both used in referring to the lower animals. Which is the commoner, but who is not infrequent, especially if the animal is thought of as an intelligent being.

Thus one would say, “The dog which is for sale is in that kennel,” even if one added, “He is a collie.” But which would never be used in such a sentence as, “I have a dog who loves children.”

70. The gender of masculine and of feminine nouns may be shown in various ways.

1. The male and the female of many kinds or classes of living beings are denoted by different words.

Masculine	Feminine
father	mother
husband	wife
uncle	aunt
king	queen
monk	nun
wizard	witch
lord	lady
horse	mare
gander	goose
drake	duck
cock	hen
ram	ewe
bull	cow
hart	hind
buck	doe
fox	vixen10

2. Some masculine nouns become feminine by the addition of an ending.

Masculine	Feminine
heir	heiress
baron	baroness
lion	lioness
prince	princess
emperor	empress
tiger	tigress
executor	executrix
administrator	administratrix
hero	heroine
Joseph	Josephine
sultan	sultana
Philip	Philippa

Note. The feminine gender is often indicated by the ending ess. Frequently the corresponding masculine form ends in or or er: as,—actor, actress; governor, governess; waiter, waitress. The ending ess is not so common as formerly. Usage favors proprietor, author, editor, etc., even for the feminine (rather than the harsher forms proprietress, authoress, editress), whenever there is no special reason for emphasizing the difference of sex.

3. A few feminine words become masculine by the addition of an ending. Thus,—widow, widower; bride, bridegroom.

4. Gender is sometimes indicated by the ending man, woman, maid, boy, or girl.

5. A noun or a pronoun is sometimes prefixed to a noun to indicate gender.

6. The gender of a noun may be indicated by some accompanying part of speech, usually by a pronoun.

• My cat is always washing his face.
• The intruder shook her head.
• I was confronted by a pitiful creature, haggard and unshaven.

Note. The variations in form studied under 2 and 3 (above) are often regarded as inflections. In reality, however, the masculine and the feminine are different words. Thus, baroness is not an inflectional form of baron, but a distinct noun, made from baron by adding the ending ess, precisely as barony and baronage are made from baron by adding the endings y and age. The process is rather that of derivation or noun-formation than that of inflection.

II. NUMBER

71. Number is that property of substantives which shows whether they indicate one person, place, or thing or more than one.

There are two numbers,—the singular and the plural.

The singular number denotes but one person, place, or thing. The plural number denotes more than one person, place, or thing.

72. Most nouns form the plural number by adding s or es to the singular.

Special Rules

1. If the singular ends in s, x, z, ch, or sh, the plural ending is es.

2. Many nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant also take the ending es in the plural.

3. Nouns ending in o preceded by a vowel form their plural in s: as,—cameo, cameos; folio, folios.

4. The following nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant also form their plural in s:—

• banjo
• bravo
• burro
• cantocasino
• chromo
• contralto
• duodecimo
• dynamo
• halo¹¹
• junto
• lasso
• memento¹¹
• octavo
• piano
• proviso
• quarto
• solo
• soprano
• stiletto
• torso
• tyro
• zero¹¹

73. In some nouns the addition of the plural ending alters the spelling and even the sound of the singular form.

1. Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change y to i and add es in the plural.

Most proper names ending in y, however, take the plural in s.

2. Some nouns ending in f or fe, change the f to v and add es or s.

74. A few nouns form their plural in en.

Note. Ancient or poetical plurals belonging to this class are: eyne (for eyen, from eye), kine (cows), shoon (shoes), hosen (hose).

75. A few nouns form their plural by a change of vowel.

Note. German, Mussulman, Ottoman, dragoman, firman, and talisman, which are not compounds of man, form their plurals regularly: as,—Germans, Mussulmans. Norman also forms its plural in s.

76. A few nouns have the same form in both singular and plural.

Note. This class was larger in older English than at present. It included, for example, year, which in Shakspere has two plurals:—“six thousand years,” “twelve year since.”

77. A few nouns have two plurals, but usually with some difference in meaning.

Singular	Plural
brother	brothers (relatives)
	brethren (members of the same society)
horse	horses (animals)
	horse (cavalry)
foot	feet (parts of the body)
	foot (infantry)
sail	sails (on vessels)
	sail (vessels in a fleet)
head	heads (in usual sense)
	head (of cattle)
fish	fishes (individually)
	fish (collectively)
penny	pennies (single coins)
	pence (collectively)
cloth	cloths (pieces of cloth)
	clothes (garments)
die	dies (for stamping)
	dice (for gaming)

• The pennies were arranged in neat piles.
• English money is reckoned in pounds, shillings, and pence.

78. When compound nouns are made plural, the last part usually takes the plural form; less often the first part; rarely both parts.

79. Letters of the alphabet, figures, signs used in writing, and words regarded merely as words take ’s in the plural.

• “Embarrassed” is spelled with two r’s and two s’s.
• Your 3’s look like 8’s.
• Tell the printer to change the §’s to ¶’s.
• Don’t interrupt me with your but’s!

80. Foreign nouns in English sometimes retain their foreign plurals; but many have an English plural also.

Some of the commonest are included in the following list:¹²

Singular	Plural
alumna (feminine)	alumnæ
alumnus (masculine)	alumni
amanuensis	amanuenses
analysis	analyses
animalculum	animalcula13
antithesis	antitheses
appendix	appendices
	appendixes
axis	axes
bacillus	bacilli
bacterium	bacteria
bandit	banditti
	bandits
basis	bases
beau	beaux
	beaus
candelabrum	candelabra
cumulus	cumuli
cherub	cherubim
	cherubs
crisis	crises
curriculum	curricula
datum	data
ellipsis	ellipses
erratum	errata
formula	formulæ
	formulas
genius	genii
	geniuses
genus	genera
gymnasium	gymnasia
	gymnasiums
hippopotamus	hippopotami
hypothesis	hypotheses
larva	larvæ
memorandum	memoranda
	memorandums
nebula	nebulæ
oasis	oases
parenthesis	parentheses
phenomenon	phenomena
radius	radii
seraph	seraphim
	seraphs
species	species
stratum	strata
synopsis	synopses
tableau	tableaux
tempo	tempi
terminus	termini
thesis	theses
trousseau	trousseaux
vertebra	vertebræ

The two plurals sometimes differ in meaning: as,—

• Michael Angelo and Raphael were geniuses.
• Spirits are sometimes called genii.
• This book has two indices.
• The printer uses signs called indexes.

81. When a proper name with the title Mr., Mrs., Miss, or Master, is put into the plural, the rules are as follows:—

1. The plural of Mr. is Messrs. (pronounced Messers¹⁴). The name remains in the singular. Thus,—

Mr. Jackson, plural Messrs. (or the Messrs.) Jackson.

2. Mrs. has no plural. The name itself takes the plural form. Thus,—

Mrs. Jackson, plural the Mrs. Jacksons.

3. In the case of Miss, sometimes the title is put into the plural, sometimes the name. Thus,—

Miss Jackson, plural the Misses Jackson or the Miss Jacksons.

The latter expression is somewhat informal. Accordingly, it would not be used in a formal invitation or reply, or in addressing a letter.

4. The plural of Master is Masters. The name remains in the singular. Thus,—

Master Jackson, plural the Masters Jackson.

Other titles usually remain in the singular, the name taking the plural form: as,—the two General Follansbys. But when two or more names follow, the title becomes plural: as,—Generals Rolfe and Johnson.

82. Some nouns, on account of their meaning, are seldom or never used in the plural.

Such are many names of qualities (as cheerfulness, mirth), of sciences (as chemistry¹⁵), of forces (as gravitation).

Many nouns, commonly used in the singular only, may take a plural in some special sense. Thus,—

earth (the globe)	earths (kinds of soil)
ice (frozen water)	ices (food)
tin (a metal)	tins (tin dishes or cans)
nickel (a metal)	nickels (coins)

83. Some nouns are used in the plural only.

84. A few nouns are plural in form, but singular in meaning.

Note. These nouns were formerly plural in sense as well as in form. News, for example, originally meant “new things.” Shakspere uses it both as a singular and as a plural. Thus,—“This news was brought to Richard” (King John, v. 3. 12); “But wherefore do I tell these news to thee?” (1 Henry IV, iii. 2. 121). In a few words modern usage varies. The following nouns are sometimes singular, sometimes plural: alms, amends, bellows, means, pains (in the sense of “effort”), tidings.

III. PERSON

85. Person is that property of substantives which shows whether they denote (1) the speaker, (2) the person spoken to, or (3) the person spoken of.

A substantive is in the first person when it denotes the speaker, in the second person when it denotes the person spoken to, in the third person when it denotes the person or thing spoken of.

• I, the king, command his presence. [First person.]
• You, Thomas, broke the window. [Second person.]
• Charles, come here. [Second person.]
• He, the fireman, saved the train. [Third person.]
• The diver sinks slowly from our view. [Third person.]
• The tower suddenly collapsed. [Third person.]

The examples show (1) that the person of a noun has nothing to do with its form, but is indicated by the sense or connection; (2) that certain pronouns denote person with precision. Thus, I is always of the first person; you of the second; and he of the third. These personal pronouns will be treated in Chapter III.

IV. CASE

86. Substantives have inflections of case to indicate their grammatical relations to verbs, to prepositions, or to other substantives.

There are three cases,—the nominative, the possessive, and the objective.

The possessive case is often called the genitive.

The nominative and the objective case of a noun are always alike in form. In some pronouns, however, there is a difference (as,—I, me; he, him).

Declension of Nouns

87. The inflection of a substantive is called its declension. To decline a noun is to give its case-forms in order, first in the singular number and then in the plural. Thus,—

Singular
Nominative	boy	horse	fly	chimney	calf	lass	man	deer
Possessive	boy’s	horse’s	fly’s	chimney’s	calf’s	lass’s	man’s	deer’s
Objective	boy	horse	fly	chimney	calf	lass	man	deer
Plural
Nominative	boys	horses	flies	chimneys	calves	lasses	men	deer
Possessive	boys’	horses’	flies’	chimneys’	calves’	lasses’	men’s	deer’s
Objective	boys	horses	flies	chimneys	calves	lasses	men	deer

Nominative Case

88. The nominative case is used in the following constructions: (1) the subject, (2) the predicate nominative, (3) the vocative, (or nominative of direct address), (4) the exclamatory nominative, (5) appositive with a nominative, (6) the nominative absolute.

1. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case.

• Water freezes.
• Charles climbed the mountain.
• The boy’s face glowed with health and exercise.
• A thousand men were killed in this battle.

In the third example, face is the simple subject; the complete subject is the boy’s face. In the fourth, men is the simple subject; the complete subject is a thousand men. Both face and men are in the nominative case; face is in the singular number; men in the plural.

2. A substantive standing in the predicate, but describing or defining the subject, agrees with the subject in case and is called a predicate nominative.

A predicate nominative is also called a subject complement or an attribute.

• Lobsters are crustaceans.
• A good book is a faithful friend.
• Shakspere was a native of Stratford-on-Avon.
• Arnold proved a traitor.
• Adams was elected president.

The rule for the case of the predicate nominative is particularly important with respect to pronouns (§ 119).

I am he.	Are you she?
It is I.	It was we who did it.

The predicate nominative is commonest after the copula is (in its various forms). It will be further studied in connection with intransitive and passive verbs (§§ 214, 252).

3. A substantive used for the purpose of addressing a person directly, and not connected with any verb, is called a vocative.

A vocative is in the nominative case, and is often called a nominative by direct address or a vocative nominative.

• Come, Ruth, give me your hand.
• Turn to the right, madam.
• Herbert, it is your turn.
• Come with me, my child.

Note. A vocative word is sometimes said to be independent by direct address, because it stands by itself, unconnected with any verb. That a vocative is really in the nominative case may be seen in the use of the pronoun thou in this construction: as,—I will arrest thee, thou traitor (see § 115).

4. A substantive used as an exclamation is called an exclamatory nominative (or nominative of exclamation).

• Peace, be still.
• Fortunate Ruth!
• A drum! a drum! Macbeth doth come.
• Look! a balloon!
• The sun! then we shall have a fine day.

Certain exclamatory nominatives are sometimes classed as interjections (§ 375).

5. A substantive added to another substantive to explain it and signifying the same person or thing, is called an appositive and is said to be in apposition.

An appositive is in the same case as the substantive which it limits.

Hence a substantive in apposition with a nominative is in the nominative case.

• Mr. Scott, the grocer, is here. [Apposition with subject.]
• Tom, old fellow, I am glad to see you. [Apposition with vocative.]
• The discoverer of the Pacific was Balboa, a Spaniard. [Apposition with predicate nominative.]

Note. Apposition means “attachment”; appositive means “attached noun or pronoun.” An appositive modifies the noun with which it is in apposition much as an adjective might do (compare “Balboa, a Spaniard” with “Spanish Balboa”). Hence it is classed as an adjective modifier.

Possessive Case

89. The possessive case denotes ownership or possession.

• John’s yacht lies at her moorings.
• The duck’s feet are webbed.
• The mutineer’s pistol burst when he fired.

Forms of the Possessive Case

90. The possessive case of most nouns has, in the singular number, the ending ’s.

Plural nouns ending in s take no further ending for the possessive. In writing, however, an apostrophe is put after the s to indicate the possessive case.

Plural nouns not ending in s take ’s in the possessive.

Note. In older English the possessive of most nouns was written as well as pronounced with the ending -es or -is. Thus, in Chaucer, the possessive of child is childës or childis; that of king is kingës or kingis; that of John is Johnës or Johnis. The use of an apostrophe in the possessive is a comparatively modern device, due to a misunderstanding. Scholars at one time thought the s of the possessive a fragment of the pronoun his; that is, they took such a phrase as George’s book for a contraction of George his book. Hence they used the apostrophe before s to signify the supposed omission of part of the word his. Similarly, in the possessive plural, there was thought to be an omission of a final es; that is, such a phrase as the horses’ heads was thought to be a contraction of the horseses heads. Both these errors have long been exploded.

91. Nouns like sheep and deer, which have the same form in both the singular and the plural, usually take ’s in the possessive plural.

Thus, the deer’s tracks would be written, whether one deer or more were meant.

92. Possessive Singular of Nouns ending in s.

1. Monosyllabic nouns ending in s or an s-sound usually make their possessive singular by adding ’s.

Note. Most of these monosyllabic nouns in s are family names. The rule accords with the best usage; but it is not absolute, for usage varies. Hence forms like Charles’ and Wells’ cannot be condemned as positively wrong, though Charles’s and Wells’s are preferable. In speaking, the shorter form is often ambiguous, for there is no difference in sound between Dix’ and Dick’s, Mr. Hills’ and Mr. Hill’s, Dr. Childs’ and Dr. Child’s.

2. Nouns of two or more syllables ending in s or an s-sound, and not accented on the last syllable, may make their possessive singular by adding ’s, or may take no ending in the possessive.

In the latter case, an apostrophe is added in writing, but in sound there is no difference between the possessive and the nominative.

Most of the nouns in question are proper names. In speaking, one must often use the longer form to prevent ambiguity; for Williams’ and William’s, Roberts’ and Robert’s, Robbins’ and Robin’s, are indistinguishable in sound.

Use of the Possessive Case

93.¹⁶ Possession may be denoted by a phrase with of as well as by the possessive case. The distinction between the two forms cannot be brought under rigid rules, but the following suggestions will be of use.

I. In older English and in poetry the possessive case of nouns is freely used, but in modern prose it is rare unless the possessor is a living being. A phrase with of is used instead.

• The mayor of Detroit (NOT Detroit’s mayor).
• The top of the post (NOT the post’s top).
• The prevalence of the epidemic (NOT the epidemic’s prevalence).

Contrast the poetic use:—

Belgium’s capital had gathered then
Her beauty and her chivalry.—Byron.

Other prepositions are sometimes used: as,—“the explosion in New York” (NOT “New York’s explosion”), “the station at Plymouth.”

II. When the possessor is a living being, good usage varies.

III. The following phrases are established idioms with the possessive. In some of them, however, the possessive may be replaced by of and its object.

• (1) The earth’s surface,
• the sun’s rays,
• the moon’s reflection,
• the pit’s mouth,
• a rope’s end,
• his journey’s end,
• at his wit’s end,
• the ship’s keel,
• the water’s edge,
• the cannon’s mouth,
• out of harm’s way,
• at swords’ points,
• for pity’s sake,
• for conscience’ sake;
• (2) a moment’s pause,
• a year’s time,
• a hand’s breadth,
• a boat’s length,
• a month’s salary,
• a week’s notice,
• a night’s rest,
• a day’s work,
• a stone’s throw,
• a feather’s weight,
• an hour’s delay,
• a dollar’s worth,
• not a foot’s difference.

In the second group of phrases (“a moment’s pause,” etc.), the possessive denotes not ownership, but measure or extent.

IV. The possessive case of certain pronouns (my, our, your, his, her, its, their) is more freely used than that of nouns in expressions that do not denote actual ownership.

• I know him to my sorrow. [Compare: to his loss, to our detriment, to his advantage.]
• The brass has lost its polish.
• This question must be decided on its merits.
• His arguments did not fail of their effect.

For the inflection of these pronouns, see § 115. For the use of whose, see § 152.

94. When a thing belongs to two or more joint owners, the sign of the possessive is added to the last name only.

• Brown, Jones, and Richardson’s factories. [Brown, Jones, and Richardson are partners.]
• It is George and William’s turn to take the boat. [George and William are to go in the boat together.]
• On the other hand, in order to avoid ambiguity we should say, “Brown’s, Jones’s, and Richardson’s factories,” if each individual had a factory of his own; and “George’s and William’s answers were correct,” if each boy answered independently of the other.

95. In compound nouns the last part takes the possessive sign. So also when a phrase is used as a noun.

• My father-in-law’s home is in Easton.
• We had a quarter of an hour’s talk.

Other examples are the following:—

96. The noun denoting the object possessed is often omitted when it may be readily understood, especially in the predicate.

• Conant’s [shop] is open until noon.
• I buy my hats at Bryant’s [shop].
• We will dine at Pennock’s [restaurant].
• That camera is mine. (See § 122.)

This construction is common in such expressions as:—

• He was a relative of John’s.
• That careless tongue of John’s will get him into trouble.

In the first example, “a relative of John’s” means “a relative of (= from among) John’s relatives.” The second example shows an extension of this construction by analogy. See § 122.

Objective Case

97. The objective case, as its name implies, is the case of the object. Most of its uses are covered by the following rule:—

The object of a verb or preposition is in the objective case.

The object of a preposition has already been explained and defined (§§ 20–21).

98. The object of a verb may be (1) the direct object, (2) the predicate objective, (3) the indirect object, (4) the cognate object. Of these the direct object is the most important.

The objective is also used (5) adverbially (§ 109), (6) in apposition with another objective (§ 110), and (7) as the subject of an infinitive (§ 111).

1. Direct Object

99. Some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that which receives the action or is produced by it. These are called transitive verbs. All other verbs are called intransitive.

• 1. That man struck my dog.
• 2. The arrow hit the target.
• 3. Cæsar conquered Gaul.
• 4. Mr. Holland sells flour.
• 5. The farmer raises corn.
• 6. Mr. Eaton makes stoves.
• 7. My grandfather built that house.

In Nos. 1–4, the verb is followed by a noun denoting the receiver of the action. Thus, in the first sentence, the dog receives the blow; in the second, the target receives the action of hitting. In Nos. 5–7, the verb is followed by a noun denoting the product of the action. For example, the corn is produced by the action expressed by the verb raises.

In each example, the noun that follows the verb completes the sense of the verb. “That man struck ——.” “Struck whom?” “He struck the dog.” Until dog is added the sense of the verb struck is incomplete.

100. A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called its direct object, and is said to be in the objective case.

101. Intransitive verbs have no object.

• The lion roared.
• The visitor coughed gently.
• The log drifted downstream.
• We all listened intently.

Compare these sentences with those in § 99. We observe that the verbs (unlike those in § 99) admit no object, since their meaning is complete without the addition of any noun to denote the receiver or product of the action. “The man struck——” prompts the inquiry, “Struck whom?” But no such question is suggested by “The lion roared”; for “Roared what?” would be an absurdity.

102. The predicate nominative (§ 88, 2) must not be confused with the direct object. They resemble each other in two particulars: (1) both stand in the predicate, and (2) both complete the meaning of the verb. But they differ utterly in their relation to the subject of the sentence. For—

The predicate nominative describes or defines the subject. Hence both substantives denote the same person or thing.

Charles [SUBJECT] {is | was | became | was elected} captain [PREDICATE NOMINATIVE].

The direct object neither describes nor defines the subject. On the contrary, it designates that upon which the subject acts. Hence the two substantives regularly¹⁸ denote different persons or things.

Charles [SUBJECT] {struck James [OBJECT]. | threw a stone [OBJECT]. | built a boat [OBJECT].}

Both the direct object and the predicate nominative are classed as complements, because they are used to complete the sense of the predicate verb (§ 483).

103. A verb of asking sometimes takes two direct objects, one denoting the person and the other the thing.

• She asked the boy his name.
• Ask me no favors.
• I asked the lawyer his opinion.

2. Predicate Objective

104. Verbs of choosing, calling, naming, making, and thinking may take two objects referring to the same person or thing.

The first of these is the direct object, and the second, which completes the sense of the predicate, is called a predicate objective.

• We chose Oscar president. [Oscar is the direct object of chose; president is the predicate objective.]
• I call John my friend.
• They thought the man a coward.
• Make my house your home.

The predicate objective is often called the complementary object or the objective attribute. It is classed as a complement.

An adjective may serve as predicate objective.

• I call this ship unseaworthy.
• Your letter made your sister anxious.
• What makes Edwin so careless?

3. Indirect Object and Similar Idioms

105. Some verbs of giving, telling, refusing, and the like, may take two objects, a direct object and an indirect object.

The indirect object denotes the person or thing toward whom or toward which is directed the action expressed by the rest of the predicate.

Direct Object only	Direct Object and Indirect Object
Dick sold his bicycle.	Dick sold John his bicycle.
I gave permission.	I gave this man permission.
He paid a dollar.	He paid the gardener a dollar.
She taught Latin.	She taught my children Latin.

Most of the verbs that admit an indirect object are included in the following list:—

• allot,
• allow,
• assign,
• bequeath,
• bring,
• deny,
• ensure,
• fetch,
• fling,
• forbid,
• forgive,
• give,
• grant,
• guarantee,
• hand,
• lease,
• leave,
• lend,
• let,
• owe,
• pardon,
• pass,
• pay,
• refund,
• refuse,
• remit,
• restore,
• sell,
• send,
• show,
• sing,
• spare,
• teach,
• tell,
• throw,
• toss,
• vouchsafe.

Pronouns are commoner as indirect objects than nouns.

• They denied her the necessities of life.
• I guaranteed them a handsome profit.
• The king vouchsafed them an audience.

It is always possible to insert the preposition to before the indirect object without changing the sense.

Since the indirect object is equivalent to an adverbial phrase, it is classed as a modifier of the verb.

Thus, in “Dick sold John his bicycle,” John is an adverbial modifier of the predicate verb sold.

The indirect object is sometimes used without a direct object expressed. Thus,—

He paid the hatter.

Here hatter may be recognized as an indirect object by inserting to before it and adding a direct object (“his bill,” “his money,” or the like).

106. The objective case sometimes expresses the person for whom anything is done.

• William made his brother a kite [= made a kite for his brother].
• Sampson built me a boat [= built a boat for me].

This construction may be called the objective of service.

Note. The objective of service is often included under the head of the indirect object. But the two constructions differ widely in sense, and should be carefully distinguished. To do an act to a person is not the same thing as to do an act for a person. Contrast “John paid the money to me,” with “John paid the money for me”; “Dick sold a bicycle to me,” with “Dick sold a bicycle for me.”

107. The objective case is used after like, unlike, near, and next, which are really adjectives or adverbs, though in this construction they are often regarded as prepositions.

• She sang like a bird. [Like is an adverb.]
• The earth is like a ball. [Like is an adjective.]
• My office is near the station. [Near is an adjective.]
• That answer was unlike Joseph. [Unlike is an adjective.]
• This man walks unlike Joseph. [Unlike is an adverb.]
• A stream ran near the hut. [Near is an adverb.]

The use of the objective after these words is a peculiar idiom similar to the indirect object (§ 105). The nature of the construction may be seen (as in the indirect object) by inserting to or unto (“She sang like unto a bird”).

Note. The indirect object, the objective of service, and the objective after like, unlike, and near are all survivals of old dative constructions. Besides the case of the direct object (often called accusative), English once had a case (called the dative) which meant to or for [somebody or something]. The dative case is easily distinguished in Greek, Latin, and German, but in English it has long been merged in form with the ordinary objective.

4. Cognate Object

108. A verb that is regularly intransitive sometimes takes as object a noun whose meaning closely resembles its own.

A noun in this construction is called the cognate object of the verb and is in the objective case.

• He ran a race.
• The mayor coughed a dubious, insinuating cough.
• A scornful laugh laughed he.
• The trumpeter blew a loud blast.
• She sleeps the sleep of death.

Note. Cognate means “kindred” or “related.” The cognate object repeats the idea of the verb, often with some modification, and may be classed as an adverbial modifier. Its difference from the direct object may be seen by contrasting “The blacksmith struck the anvil” with “The blacksmith struck a mighty blow” (cf. “struck mightily”). For the pronoun it as cognate object, see § 120.

5. Adverbial Objective

109. A noun, or a phrase consisting of a noun and its modifiers, may be used adverbially. Such a noun is called an adverbial objective.

• We have waited years for this reform.
• I am years older than you are.
• The river is miles away.
• The water rose three feet.
• This is an inch too long.
• My brother is twenty years old.
• I will stay a short time.
• Wait a moment.
• Come here this instant!
• Turn your eyes this way.
• This silk is several shades too light.

A group of words consisting of an adverbial object with its modifier or modifiers forms an adverbial phrase (§ 41).

6. Objective in Apposition

110. A substantive in apposition with an objective is itself in the objective case.

• Yesterday I saw Williams the expressman. [Apposition with the direct object of saw.]
• Tom gave his friend John a book. [Apposition with the indirect object friend.]
• He lives with Andrews the blacksmith. [Apposition with the object of the preposition with.]

This rule follows from the general principle that an appositive is in the same case as the substantive to which it is attached (§ 88, 5).

7. Subject of an Infinitive

111. The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.

This construction will be treated in connection with the uses of the infinitive (§ 325).

Parsing

112. To parse a word is to describe its grammatical form and to give its construction.

In parsing a noun, we mention the class to which it belongs, give its gender, number, person, and case, and tell why it is in that case. Thus,—

1. Frank shot a wolf.

2. Jane, come here.

Jane is a proper noun of the feminine gender, in the singular number and second person. It is in the nominative case, being used as a vocative (or in direct address).

3. The rope is fifteen feet long.

Feet is a common noun of the neuter gender, in the plural number and third person. It is in the objective case, being used as an adverbial modifier of the adjective long.

4. Edgar’s boat is a sloop.

Edgar’s is a proper noun of the masculine gender, in the singular number and third person. It is in the possessive case, modifying the noun boat.

CHAPTER III
PRONOUNS

113. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It designates a person, place, or thing without naming it.

The substantive to which a pronoun refers is called its antecedent.

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, number, and person (§ 11).

Pronouns have in general the same constructions as nouns.

114. Pronouns may be classified as (1) personal, (2) adjective, (3) relative, and (4) interrogative.

Under adjective pronouns are included (a) demonstrative pronouns and (b) indefinite pronouns.

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

115. The personal pronouns serve to distinguish (1) the speaker, (2) the person spoken to, and (3) the person, place, or thing spoken of (§ 85).

They are declined as follows:—

The Pronoun of the First Person: I

SINGULAR		PLURAL
Nominative	I	Nominative	we
Possessive	my or mine	Possessive	our or ours
Objective	me	Objective	us

The Pronoun of the Second Person: thou

SINGULAR		PLURAL
Nominative	thou	Nominative	you or ye
Possessive	thy or thine	Possessive	your or yours
Objective	thee	Objective	you or ye

The Pronoun of the Third Person: he, she, it

Singular				Plural
	MASCULINE	FEMININE	NEUTER	MASCULINE, FEMININE, and NEUTER
Nominative	he	she	it	they
Possessive	his	her or hers	its	their or theirs
Objective	him	her	it	them

Unlike nouns, most of the personal pronouns have distinct forms for the nominative and the objective.

GENDER AND NUMBER

116. The pronouns of the first and second persons (I and thou) may be either masculine or feminine.

The pronouns of the third person have different forms for masculine, feminine, and neuter in the singular (he, she, it); but in the plural the form they serves for all three genders.

117. Thou, thy, thine, thee, and ye are old forms still found in poetry and the solemn style.

In ordinary prose, you, your, and yours are the only forms used for the second person, whether singular or plural. Yet you, even when denoting a single person, always takes the verb-forms that go with plural subjects. Thus,—

My friend, you were [NOT was] in error.

Hence you may best be regarded as always plural in form, but may be described as singular in sense when it stands for one person only.

118. They, you, and we are often used indefinitely for “one” or “people in general.”

• They say that Joe has gone to sea.
• To shut off the steam, you close both valves of the radiator.

CASE OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS

Nominative Case

119. Nominative constructions of the personal pronouns are the same as those of nouns (§ 88).

• I am ready. [Subject.]
• It is I. [Predicate nominative.]
• Here, you rascal, what are you about? [Vocative, direct address.]
• Poor you! [Nominative of exclamation.]
• General Austin, he and no other, won the battle. [Apposition.]

For the nominative absolute, see § 345.

Care must be taken not to use an objective form when a predicate nominative is required.

• It is I [NOT me].
• It is we [NOT us] who did it.
• It was he [NOT him] who told us.
• It was they [NOT them] who were to blame.

120. It has several peculiar uses in the nominative.

1. It is used as the subject in many expressions like “It rains,” “It snows,” “It lightens,” “It is cold,” where no definite subject is thought of. In this use, it is said to be impersonal.

Note. An impersonal it also occurs as a cognate object (§ 108) in colloquial language: as,—“Hang it!” “Go it!” “He went it.” “He farmed it for a year.” Other examples of the indefinite and impersonal it in various constructions are: “We are roughing it.” “Keep it up.” “You’ll catch it.” “Let it all go.” “He made a poor job of it.” “He made a success of it.”

2. It often serves as grammatical subject merely to introduce the verb is, the real subject of the thought standing in the predicate. In this use it is called an expletive (or “filler”).

• It is he.
• It is Christmas.
• It was a tiresome ride.

In these examples, the subject of the thought (he, Christmas, ride) appears as a predicate nominative.

3. The antecedent of it is often a group of words.

Wearing tight shoes is foolish. It deforms the feet.

121. In imperative sentences the subject (you) is commonly omitted: as,—“Shut the door.”

Possessive Case

122. The possessive forms my, thy, our, your, her, and their are used when a noun follows; mine, thine, ours, yours, hers, and theirs cannot be followed by a noun, and stand commonly in the predicate. His may be used in either way.

My brother has arrived.	The fault is mine.
Our work is done.	Those seats are ours.
I have torn your glove.	This pencil is yours.
Their turn has come.	That field is theirs.
His hair is black.	The book is not his.

Examples of mine, yours, etc. not in the predicate are:

• Mine was a terrier; yours was a pointer.
• Theirs is a red motor car.
• Ours broke down last night.
• His leaked badly.
• His name is Martin; hers is Smith.

In such cases the pronoun is always emphatic. The construction is chiefly colloquial.

123. When two or more separate objects are spoken of as possessed, a possessive should precede the name of each if there is danger of ambiguity.

• I will send for our secretary and our treasurer. [Two persons.]
• I will send for our secretary and treasurer. [One person.]
• I have called for my bread and my milk. [Two things.]
• I have called for my bread and milk. [A mixture.]
• Have you Bacon’s “Essays and Apophthegms”? [One book.]
• Have you Bacon’s “Essays” and his “Advancement of Learning”? [Two books.]

Objective Case

124. The commonest constructions in which personal pronouns take the objective case are the following:—

1. Object of a preposition (§ 97): as,—

Take it from him.

2. Direct object of a transitive verb (§ 99): as,—

I will find you.

3. Indirect object of a transitive verb (§ 105): as,—

He gave me a dollar.

4. Subject of an infinitive (see § 325).

THE SELF-PRONOUNS (COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS)

125. The three compound personal pronouns are made by adding the word self to certain forms of the personal pronouns. Thus,—

• myself, plural ourselves;
• thyself or yourself, plural yourselves;
• himself, herself, itself, plural themselves.

To these may be added the indefinite oneself, more commonly written as two words, one’s self (§ 139).

Observe that yourself is singular, and yourselves plural. Hisself and theirselves are incorrect forms. Ourself (not ourselves) is the compound pronoun corresponding to the royal we (§ 118).

What touches us ourself shall be last served.—Shakspere.

126. 1. The compound personal pronouns may be used to emphasize substantives.

In this use they are called intensive pronouns.

• I myself will go.
• King Alfred himself took the field.
• They did the work themselves.

An intensive pronoun is in apposition with the substantive to which it refers.

2. The compound personal pronouns may be used as the objects of transitive verbs or of prepositions when the object denotes the same person or thing as the subject.

In this use they are called reflexive pronouns.

• I have hurt myself.
• King Alfred interested himself in his subjects.
• These schemers deceived themselves.
• Mary was talking to herself.
• He gave himself a holiday. [Indirect object.]

These pronouns are called reflexive (that is, “bending back”) because they refer back to the subject and repeat its meaning in an object construction.

127. The adjective own is sometimes inserted between the first and the second part of the self-pronouns for emphasis.

In this use, self is in strictness a noun limited by the possessive and by the adjective own, but the phrases may be regarded as compound pronouns. Other adjectives are sometimes inserted between the possessive and self: as,—my very self, his worthless self.

128. The intensive pronouns are sometimes used without a substantive. Thus,—

• It is myself. [Myself = I myself.]
• You are hardly yourself to-day.

In poetry and older English, the intensives are even found as subjects: as,—“Ourself will mingle with society” (Macbeth).

129. The intensive pronouns should not be used as simple personal pronouns.

Thus we should say:—“He was kind to Mary and me” (NOT myself); “They invited my wife and me (NOT myself).”

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS

130. Some words are used either as adjectives or as pronouns. Such words are called adjective pronouns.

Adjective pronouns are classified, according to their meaning, as (1) demonstrative pronouns and (2) indefinite pronouns.

I. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

131. The demonstratives are this (plural, these), that (plural, those). They point out persons or things for special attention.

The demonstratives may be used either as adjectives or as pronouns.

I. As adjectives:—

This sailor saved my life.	These girls are energetic.
Be kind to this child.	I am not alarmed by these threats.
Give this boy a dime.	These cherries are sour.
This fire is too hot.	Look at these acorns.
That saw is dull.	Those trees are dying.
We must cross that stream.	Take those dishes away.
That train is late.	Who are those strangers?
Send that dog home.	Do you see those rocks?
I am tired of that tune.	I am sorry for those children.

II. As pronouns:—

This is a fine morning.19	These are cowboys.
This is my uncle.	Robert gave me these.
Can you do this?	I never saw these before.
This is the road.	Who are these?
Look at this.	These are our rackets.
That is Ellen in the canoe.	Those are deer.
That would please him.	Those are nasturtiums.
That must be he.	What are those?
What is that?	Those are kangaroos.

If the demonstrative is followed by a noun which it limits (as in “this sailor”), it is an adjective. If the demonstrative points out something which it does not name (as in “This is a fine morning”), it takes the place of a noun and is therefore a pronoun. The simple subject of the sentence “This camera is expensive” is the noun camera, which is modified by the adjective this. The subject of the sentence “This is expensive” is the pronoun this.

Note. Yon, yond, and yonder are common as demonstratives in older English and in poetry. Thus,—“Nerissa, cheer yon stranger” (Merchant of Venice). “Question yond man” (As You Like It). “Is not yond Diomed?” (Troilus and Cressida). “Call yonder fellow hither” (Henry V). “Is yonder the man?” (As You Like It).

132. Demonstratives have only the inflection of number. They have the same form for all three genders. The nominative and objective cases are alike; the possessive is replaced by of with the objective.

Singular		Plural
Nom. and Obj.	this	Nom. and Obj.	these
Possessive	[of this]	Possessive	[of these]
Nom. and Obj.	that	Nom. and Obj.	those
Possessive	[of that]	Possessive	[of those]

Yon, yond, and yonder are not inflected.

133. A demonstrative pronoun may be used to avoid the repetition of a noun.

• My dog and that [= the dog] of my friend John have been fighting.
• Compare these maps with those [= the maps] on the blackboard.

134. The singular forms this and that (not the plurals these and those) are used with the nouns kind and sort.

• I like this kind of grapes.
• I have met this sort of people before.
• That kind of apples grows in Idaho.

II. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

135. The indefinite pronouns point out objects less clearly or definitely than demonstratives do.

• Each has its merits.
• Some are missing.
• I cannot give you any.
• Either is correct.
• He knows neither of you.
• I like both.

136. Most indefinites may be either pronouns or adjectives. But none is always a substantive in modern use, and every is always an adjective.

137. None may be either singular or plural. When it means distinctly not one, it is singular. In many instances either construction is permissible.

• None of us has the key.
• None was (or were) left to tell the tale.

138. Each other and one another are regarded as compound pronouns. They designate related persons or things.

• My neighbor and I like each other.
• We must bear with one another.

139. One (possessive one’s) is often used as an indefinite personal pronoun. Thus,—

One does not like one’s [NOT his or their] motives to be doubted.

140. All, several, few, many, and similar words are often classed as indefinites. They may be used as adjectives or as substantives. Everybody, everything, anybody, anything, somewhat, aught, naught,²⁰ etc., are called indefinite nouns.

141. Care should be taken in framing such sentences as the following:—

• Everybody has his [NOT their] faults.
• If anybody wishes to go, he [NOT they] may.
• If anybody objects, let him [NOT them] speak.
• Every member of this class must hand in his [NOT their] composition to-day.
• Each hurries toward his [NOT their] home.
• Each of us must lead his [NOT their] own life.

In sentences of this kind, the personal pronoun (he, his, him) must be in the singular to agree with its antecedent (everybody, anybody, etc.) (see § 113).

Note. When the antecedent is of common gender (as in the last example), the personal pronouns (he, his, him) may be regarded as of common gender also. In very precise or formal language, one may say he or she, his or her: as,—“Each of us must lead his or her own life”; but this form of expression is to be avoided unless the distinction is clearly necessary.

142. When used as adjectives, none of the indefinites have any forms of inflection. The same is true when they are pronouns, except as follows:—

Others is used as the plural of another. The possessive forms are:—singular, another’s; plural, others’. The other (possessive, the other’s) has in the plural the others (possessive, the others’). Each other and one another add ’s in the possessive. One has a possessive one’s; the one becomes the ones in the plural.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

143. Relative pronouns have a peculiar function in the sentence, since they serve both as pronouns and as connectives. Their use may be seen by comparing the two sentences that follow:—

• 1. This is the sailor, and he saved my life.
• 2. This is the sailor who saved my life.

Each consists of two parts or clauses (§ 44). In No. 1, the two clauses are connected by the conjunction and, which belongs to neither; the pronoun he, which stands for sailor, is the subject of the second clause. In No. 2, there is no conjunction; instead, we find the word who, which replaces and he. This who is a pronoun, since it stands for sailor (precisely as he does in No. 1) and (like he) is the subject of the verb saved. But who is also a connective, since it joins the two parts of the sentence as and does in No. 1. Such words (which serve both as pronouns and as connectives) are called relative pronouns.

In No. 1, the two clauses are coördinate. Neither serves as a modifier, and each might stand alone as a complete sentence (“This is the sailor.” “He saved my life”). The sentence is compound (§ 44). In No. 2, on the contrary, the clause who saved my life is a subordinate or dependent clause, for it is used as an adjective modifier of the noun sailor, which it limits by showing what particular sailor is meant. The sentence is complex (§ 44). The dependent clause (who saved my life) is connected with the main clause (this is the sailor) by the pronoun who, which refers to sailor.

144. Relative pronouns connect dependent clauses with main clauses by referring directly to a substantive in the main clause.²¹

This substantive is the antecedent of the relative (§ 11).

Thus in § 143 the noun sailor is the antecedent of who.

Relative means “carrying back.” These pronouns are so called because they carry the mind back directly to the antecedent.

145. The simple relative pronouns are who, which, that, as, and what.

Who and which are declined as follows in both the singular and the plural:—

Nominative	who	which
Possessive	whose	whose
Objective	whom	which

That, as, and what are not inflected. They have the same form for both nominative and objective and are not used in the possessive case.

146. As may be used as a relative pronoun when such stands in the main clause.

• Such of you as have finished may go.
• I have never seen such strawberries as these [are].
• Use such powers as you have.

147. As is often used as a relative after the same.

This color is the same as that [is].

Other relatives are also used after the same.

• This is the same book that (or which) you were reading yesterday.
• This is the same man that (or whom) I saw on the pier last Friday.

148. Who is either masculine or feminine; which and what are neuter; that and as are of all three genders.

• All who heard, approved.
• Here is the lad whose story interested you.
• The first woman whom I saw was Mary.
• He answered in such English as he could muster.
• I saw nobody that I knew.
• This is the road that leads to London.

149. A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, number, and person.

The sentences in § 148 illustrate the agreement of the relative with its antecedent in gender.

Since relative pronouns have the same form for both numbers and for all three persons, their number and person must be discovered, in each instance, by observing the number and person of the antecedent.

• It is I who am wrong. [First person, singular number: antecedent, I.]
• All you who are ready may go. [Second person plural: antecedent, you.]
• Give help to him who needs it. [Third person, singular: antecedent, him.]
• The road that leads to the shore is sandy. [Third person singular: antecedent, road.]
• The roads that lead to the shore are sandy. [Third person plural: antecedent, roads.]

To determine the number and person of a relative pronoun is particularly necessary when it is the subject of the clause, for the form of the verb varies (as the examples show) according to the number and person of the subject (§ 222). Hence the rule for the agreement of a relative with its antecedent is of much practical importance.

150. The case of a relative pronoun has nothing to do with its antecedent, but depends on the construction of its own clause.

• The servant who opened the door wore livery. [Who is in the nominative case, being the subject of opened.]
• He discharged his servant, who immediately left town. [Who is in the nominative case, since it is the subject of left, although its antecedent (servant) is in the objective.]
• The servant whom you discharged has returned. [Whom is in the objective case, since it is the direct object of discharged. The antecedent (servant) is, on the other hand, in the nominative, because it is the subject of has returned.]
• Here is such money as I have. [As is in the objective case, being the object of have. The antecedent (money) is in the nominative.]

151. A relative pronoun in the objective case is often omitted.

Here is the book which you wanted.	Here is the book you wanted.
The noise that I heard was the wind.	The noise I heard was the wind.
The man whom I met was a carpenter.	The man I met was a carpenter.

Note. In older English a relative in the nominative is often omitted: as,—“There’s two or three of us have seen strange sights” (Julius Cæsar), that is, “There are two or three of us who have seen,” etc. The same omission is often made in rapid or careless colloquial speech. It is approved in clauses with there in such sentences as “He is one of the best men there are in the world” (§ 232).

152. Certain questions of gender call for particular attention.

1. Which is commonly used in referring to the lower animals unless these are regarded as persons. This is true even when he or she is used of the same animals (§ 69).

• This is the dog which I mentioned. Isn’t he a fine fellow?
• We have one cow which we prize highly. She is a Jersey.

2. The possessive whose may be used of any object that has life.

• This is the man whose watch was stolen.
• I have a cat whose name is Tabby.
• This is the tree whose leaves were destroyed. It is quite dead.

3. In the case of things without animal life, of which and whose are both common. The tendency is to prefer of which in prose, but whose is often used because of its more agreeable sound. In poetry, whose is especially frequent.

• A broad river, the name of which I have forgotten, forms the northern boundary of the province.
• Jack was fishing with a bamboo rod, to the end of which he had tied a short piece of ordinary twine.
• She was gazing into the pool, whose calm surface reflected her features like a mirror. [“The surface of which” would not sound so well.]

DESCRIPTIVE AND RESTRICTIVE RELATIVES

153. The clause introduced by a relative pronoun is an adjective clause, since it serves as an adjective modifier of the antecedent (§ 143). There are two different ways in which the antecedent may be thus modified.

• 1. The Italian, who wore a flower in his coat, smiled at me.
• 2. The Italian who wore a flower in his coat smiled at me.

In the first sentence, the italicized relative clause serves simply to describe the Italian, not to identify him. The flower is a mere detail of the picture.

In the second sentence, the relative clause serves not merely to describe the Italian, but also to distinguish him from all others. The flower is mentioned as a means of identification. The relative clause confines or restricts the meaning of the antecedent (Italian).

154. A relative pronoun that serves merely to introduce a descriptive fact is called a descriptive relative.

A relative pronoun that introduces a clause confining or limiting the application of the antecedent is called a restrictive relative.

Thus in the first example in § 153, who is a descriptive relative; in the second, it is a restrictive relative.

155. Before a descriptive relative we regularly make a pause in speaking, but never before a restrictive relative. Hence the rule:—

A descriptive relative is preceded by a comma; a restrictive relative is not.

• Three sailors, who were loitering on the pier, sprang to the rescue.
• A clumsy weapon, which I took for a blunderbuss, hung over the fireplace.
• I told the news to the first man that (or whom) I met.
• The coins that (or which) you showed me are doubloons.
• Nothing that I have ever read has moved me more profoundly than the third act of “King Lear.”

156. Who, which, and that are all used as restrictive relatives; but some writers prefer that to which, especially in the nominative case.

• The boy [whom] I saw at your house has left town. [Restrictive.]
• Charles, whom I saw yesterday, had not heard the news. [Descriptive.]

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN WHAT

157. The relative pronoun what is equivalent to that which, and has a double construction:—(1) the construction of the omitted or implied antecedent (that); (2) the construction of the relative (which).

• {What | That which} was said is true. [Here what, being equivalent to that which, serves as the subject both of was said and of is.]
• Tom always remembers {what | that which} is said to him. [Here what, being equivalent to that which, serves as both the object of remembers and as the subject of is said.]
• Tom always remembers {what | that which} he learns. [Here what serves both as the object of remembers and as the object of learns.]

In parsing what, mention both of its constructions.

Note. Another method of dealing with the relative what is to regard the whole clause (what was said; what is said to him; what he learns) as a noun clause. Thus the clause what was said in the first sentence would be the subject of is; in the second and third sentences, the clause would be the object of remembers. What, in the first sentence, would be parsed as the subject of was said; in the second, as the subject of is said; and in the third, as the object of learns. Neither view is incorrect, and each has its special advantages. The student may well be familiar with both methods, remembering that grammar cannot be treated like mathematics.

COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS

158. The compound relative pronouns are formed by adding ever or soever to who, which, and what.

They are declined as follows:—

Singular and Plural

Nominative	whoever (whosoever)	whichever (whichsoever)
Possessive	whosever (whosesoever)	————
Objective	whomever (whomsoever)	whichever (whichsoever)

Whatever (whatsoever) has no inflection. The nominative and the objective are alike, and the possessive is supplied by the phrase of whatever (of whatsoever).

The phrase of whichever (of whichsoever) is used instead of whosever exactly as of which is used instead of whose (§ 152).

159. The compound relative pronouns may include or imply their own antecedents and hence may have a double construction.

Whoever calls, he must be admitted. [Here he, the antecedent of whoever, is the subject of must be admitted, and whoever is the subject of calls.]

Whoever calls must be admitted. [Here the antecedent he is omitted, being implied in whoever. Whoever has therefore a double construction, being the subject of both calls and must be admitted.]

• He shall have whatever he wishes.
• I will do whichever you say.

In such sentences, care should be taken to use whoever and whomever correctly. The nominative (whoever) is required when the relative is the subject of its own clause.

• He asked whoever came.
• He told the story to whoever would listen.
• He asked whomever he knew.
• He told the story to whomever he met.

160. The compound relatives are sometimes used without an antecedent expressed or implied.

• Whoever deserts you, I will remain faithful.
• Whomever it offends, I will speak the truth.
• Whatever he attempts, he is sure to fail.
• Whichever you choose, you will be disappointed.

Note. This construction is closely related to that explained in § 159. “Whoever deserts you, I will remain faithful,” is practically equivalent to “Whoever deserts you, let him desert you! I will remain faithful.” No antecedent, however, is felt by the speaker, and hence none need be supplied in parsing. Compare concessive clauses (§ 401).

161. Which, what, whichever, and whatever are often used as adjectives.

• Use what (or whatever) powers you have.
• Whichever plan you adopt, you have my best wishes.

162. A noun limited by the adjectives what, whichever, and whatever, may have the same double construction that these relatives have when they are used as pronouns (§ 159). Thus,—

Take whichever pen is not in use. [Here pen is both the direct object of take, and the subject of is.]

Whoso for whosoever and whatso for whatsoever are common in older English.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

163. The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what. They are used in asking questions.²²

• Who is your neighbor?
• Who goes there?
• Whom have you chosen?
• From whom did you learn this?
• Whose voice is that?
• Which shall I take?
• Which is correct?
• What did he say?
• What is lacking?
• With what are you so delighted?

164. Who has a possessive whose, and an objective whom. Which and what are not inflected.

Who may be either masculine or feminine; which and what may be of any gender.

165. The objective whom often begins a question (as in the third example in § 163). Care should be taken not to write who for whom.

166. Which and what are used as interrogative adjectives.

• Which street shall I take?
• What village is this?

167. The interrogative adjective what may be used in a peculiar form of exclamatory sentence. Thus,—

• What a cold night this is!
• What courage he must have had!

What! by itself often serves as an exclamation: as,—“What! do you really think so?” In this use what may be regarded as an interjection.

168. In parsing pronouns the following models may be used:—

1. He was my earliest friend.

He is a personal pronoun of the third person. It is in the masculine gender, the singular number, and the nominative case, being the subject of the verb was.

2. A policeman whom I met showed me the house.

Whom is a relative pronoun of the masculine gender, singular number, and third person, agreeing with its antecedent, policeman. It is in the objective case, being the direct object of the transitive verb met.

3. The corporal, whose name was Scott, came from Leith.

Whose is a relative pronoun of the masculine gender, singular number, and third person, agreeing with its antecedent, corporal. It is in the possessive case, modifying the noun name.

4. Whose birthday do we celebrate in February?

Whose is an interrogative pronoun in the masculine or feminine gender, singular number, and possessive case, modifying the noun birthday.

5. He injured himself severely.

Himself is a compound personal pronoun of the third person, used reflexively. It is of the masculine gender, singular number, and third person, agreeing with its antecedent, he. It is in the objective case, being the direct object of the transitive verb injured.

CHAPTER IV
ADJECTIVES

CLASSIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES

169. An adjective is a word which describes or limits a substantive.

An adjective is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.

An adjective which describes is called a descriptive adjective; one which points out or designates is called a definitive adjective (§ 13).

Most adjectives are descriptive: as,—round, cold, red, angry, graceful, excessive, young, sudden, Roman.

Note. Many descriptive adjectives are compound (see § 64): as,—steadfast, lionlike, fireproof, downright, heartsick, everlasting, brown-eyed, broad-shouldered, ill-tempered, dear-bought, far-fetched, never-ending, self-evident, self-important. “He was a matter-of-fact person.” “Tom is hail-fellow-well-met with everybody.” “This is an out-of-the-way place.” “A dashing, down-at-the-heel youth answered my knock.”

170. A proper noun used as an adjective, or an adjective derived from a proper noun, is called a proper adjective and usually begins with a capital letter.

Note. Many so-called proper adjectives begin with a small letter because their origin is forgotten or disregarded: as,—china dishes, italic type, mesmeric power, a jovial air, a saturnine expression, a mercurial temperament, a stentorian voice.

171. Definitive adjectives include:—pronouns used as adjectives (as, this opportunity; those pictures; either table; what time is it?); numeral adjectives (as, two stars; the third year); the articles, a (or an) and the.

Pronouns used as adjectives (often called pronominal adjectives) have been studied under Pronouns—demonstratives (§§ 131–134), indefinites (§§ 135–142), relatives (§§ 143–162), interrogatives (§§ 163–167).

Numeral adjectives will be treated, along with other numerals (nouns and adverbs), in §§ 204–208.

The articles will be treated in §§ 173–180.

172. Adjectives may be classified, according to their position in the sentence, as attributive, appositive, and predicate adjectives.

1. An attributive adjective is closely attached to its noun and regularly precedes it.

• The angry spot doth glow on Cæsar’s brow.
• O you hard hearts, you cruel men of Rome!
• Yond Cassius has a lean and hungry look.

2. An appositive adjective is added to its noun to explain it, like a noun in apposition (§ 88, 5).

Noun in Apposition	Appositive Adjective
The castle, a ruin, stood on the edge of the cliff.	The castle, ancient and ruinous, stood on the edge of the cliff.
Bertram, the ringleader, refused to surrender.	Bertram, undaunted, refused to surrender.

3. A predicate adjective completes the meaning of the predicate verb, but describes or limits the subject.

Predicate adjectives are common after is (in its various forms) and other copulative verbs, particularly become and seem (§ 17).

• The sea is rough to-day.
• Burton soon became cautious in his judgments.
• You seem anxious about your future.
• The air grew hot and sultry.
• Our first experiment proved unsuccessful.
• The milk turned sour.
• Our agent proved trustworthy.

Note. The construction of the predicate adjective is similar to that of the predicate nominative (§ 88, 2). Both are known as complements, because they complete the meaning of a verb.

After look, sound, taste, smell, feel, a predicate adjective is used to describe the subject. Thus,—

• Your flowers look thrifty. [Not: look thriftily.]
• Their voices sound shrill. [Not: sound shrilly.]
• This apple tastes sweet. [Not: tastes sweetly.]
• The air smells good. [Not: smells well.]
• The patient feels comfortable. [Not: feels comfortably.]

THE ARTICLES

173. The adjectives a (or an) and the are called articles.

1. The definite article the points out one or more particular objects as distinct from others of the same kind.

• The train is late.
• Here is the key.
• The children are in the next room.

2. The indefinite article a (or an) designates an object as merely one of a general class or kind.

• Lend me a pencil.
• I have a cold.
• A young man answered my knock.

The article a is a fragment of ān (pronounced ahn), the ancient form of the numeral one; an keeps the n, which a has lost. The is an old demonstrative, related to that.

174. The with a singular noun sometimes indicates a class or kind of objects.

• The scholar is not necessarily a dryasdust.
• The elephant is the largest of quadrupeds.
• The aëroplane is a very recent invention.
• Resin is obtained from the pine.

Note. In this use the is often called the generic article (from the Latin genus, “kind” or “sort”). The singular number with the generic the is practically equivalent to the plural without an article. Thus in the first example the sense would be the same if we had, “Scholars are not necessarily dryasdusts.”

175. An adjective preceded by the may be used as a plural noun.

• The brave are honored.
• The rich have many cares.
• The strong should protect the weak.

176. An is used before words beginning with a vowel or silent h; a before other words. Thus,—

• an owl;
• an apple;
• an honest man;
• a stone;
• a pear.

177. Special rules for a or an are the following:—

1. Before words beginning with the sound of y or w, the form a, not an, is used.

This rule covers all words beginning with eu and many beginning with u. Note that the initial sound is a consonant, not a vowel. An was formerly common before such words (as,—an union, such an one), but a is now the settled form.

2. Before words beginning with h and not accented on the first syllable, an is often used. Thus, we say—

• a his´tory;
• BUT, an histor´ical novel.

In such cases, the h is very weak in sound, and is sometimes quite silent, so that the word practically begins with a vowel. Usage varies, but careful writers favor the rule here given. An was formerly more common before h than at present.

178. With two or more connected nouns or adjectives the article should be repeated whenever clearness requires (cf. § 123).

• I have consulted the secretary and the treasurer. [“The secretary and treasurer” would imply that the same person held both offices.]
• I found an anchor and a chain. [“An anchor and chain” would suggest that the chain was attached to the anchor.]
• In some towns there are separate schools for the boys and the girls; in others the boys and girls attend the same schools.
• He waved a red and white flag.
• He waved a red and a white flag.

179. A is often used distributively, in the sense of each.

• I paid five dollars a pair for my shoes.
• The letter-carrier calls twice a day.
• My class meets three times a week.

In such phrases a is better than per, except in strictly commercial language.

180. When used with adjectives, the articles precede, except in a few phrases: as,—

• Such an uproar was never heard.
• Many a man has tried in vain.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

181. In comparing objects with each other, we may use three different forms of the same adjective.

• Thomas is strong.
• William is stronger than Thomas.
• Herbert is strongest of the three.

This inflection of adjectives is called comparison, and the three forms are called degrees of comparison.

182. The degrees of comparison indicate by their form in what degree of intensity the quality described by the adjective exists.

There are three degrees of comparison,—the positive, the comparative, and the superlative.

1. The positive degree is the simplest form of the adjective, and has no special ending.

It merely describes the quality, without expressing or suggesting any comparison.

Thomas is strong.

Thus, the positive degree of the adjective strong is strong.

2. The comparative degree of an adjective is formed by adding the termination er to the positive degree.

It denotes that the quality exists in the object described in a higher degree than in some other object.

William is stronger than Thomas.

Thus, the comparative degree of the adjective strong is stronger.

3. The superlative degree is formed by adding est to the positive degree.

It denotes that the quality exists in the highest degree in the object described.

Herbert is strongest of the three.

Other examples of the comparison of adjectives are:—

Positive Degree	Comparative Degree	Superlative Degree
rich	richer	richest
poor	poorer	poorest
fast	faster	fastest
firm	firmer	firmest

183. Rules of Spelling.

1. Adjectives ending in silent e drop this letter before the comparative ending er and the superlative ending est. Thus,—

• wise, wiser, wisest;
• pure, purer, purest;
• handsome, handsomer, handsomest.

2. Most adjectives ending in y change y to i before the endings er and est. Thus,—

• silky, silkier, silkiest;
• glossy, glossier, glossiest;
• sorry, sorrier, sorriest.

3. Adjectives having a short vowel and ending in a single consonant double this before the endings er and est. Thus,—

• dim, dimmer, dimmest;
• sad, sadder, saddest;
• fit, fitter, fittest;
• big, bigger, biggest;
• red, redder, reddest;
• hot, hotter, hottest.

184. Many adjectives are compared by prefixing the adverbs more and most to the positive degree.

Many adjectives of two syllables and most adjectives of three or more syllables are so compared. Thus,—

• recent, more recent, most recent;
• terrible, more terrible, most terrible;
• triumphant, more triumphant, most triumphant;
• economical, more economical, most economical.

Some adjectives may be compared in either way.

Note. The adverbs less and least may be used with an adjective, if one wishes to run down the scale of comparison: as,—terrible, less terrible, least terrible. This idiom, however, should not be regarded as comparison of the adjective. “Superlative” means “in the highest degree,” and is not applicable to least terrible, which means “terrible in the lowest degree.”

IRREGULAR COMPARISON

185. Several adjectives have irregular comparison.²³

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
bad (evil, ill)	worse	worst
far	farther	farthest
——	further	furthest
good	better	best
late	later, latter	latest, last
well (in health)	better	——
little	less, lesser	least
much, many	more	most

Old has comparative older or elder, superlative oldest or eldest. Elder or eldest may be used with certain nouns of relationship, or in the phrases the elder and the eldest.

This is my elder brother.	My brother is older than yours.
Jane was the eldest of six children.	I shall wear my oldest clothes.

Elder is also used as a noun: as,—“You should respect your elders.”

Next is a superlative of nigh. It is used only in the sense of “the very nearest.”

• I live in the next street.
• The next time he comes, I shall refuse to see him.

186. A few superlatives end in -most. With these, one or both of the other degrees are commonly wanting.

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
——	(former)	foremost
hind	hinder	hindmost
——	inner	inmost, innermost
(out, adverb)	outer	outmost, outermost
	(utter)	utmost, uttermost
(up, adverb)	upper	uppermost
——	——	endmost
——	nether	nethermost
top	——	topmost
——	——	furthermost
north	——	northmost
northern	(more northern)	northernmost
south	——	southmost
southern	(more southern)	southernmost
east, eastern	(more eastern)	easternmost
west, western	(more western)	westernmost

Note. The ending -most is not the adverb most. It is a very old superlative ending -mest changed under the influence of the adverb most.

187. For adjectives incapable of comparison, see § 202. For special rules for the use of comparative and superlative, see §§ 199–203.

188. In parsing an adjective, tell whether it is descriptive or definitive, mention the substantive to which it belongs, and specify the degree of comparison.

CHAPTER V
ADVERBS

189. An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.

• The storm ceased suddenly.
• A very disastrous storm swept the coast.
• The storm ceased very suddenly.

190. Adverbs are classified according to their meaning as: (1) adverbs of manner; (2) adverbs of time; (3) adverbs of place; (4) adverbs of degree.²⁴

1. Adverbs of manner answer the question “How?” “In what way?”

They modify verbs or adjectives, rarely adverbs. Most of them are formed from adjectives by adding ly.

• Tom answered courageously.
• The poor child looked helplessly about.
• Softly and silently fell the snow.
• The pain was terribly severe.
• The river rose surprisingly fast.

2. Adverbs of time answer the question “When?” They usually modify verbs. Thus,—

• The old castle is now a museum.
• He was recently promoted.
• I have been disturbed lately.
• My friend arrives to-day.
• James was then a boy of seven.
• I have already rung the bell.
• Afterwards he regretted his haste.

3. Adverbs of place answer the question “Where?” They usually modify verbs. Thus,—

• Come here.
• Yonder stands the culprit.
• An old sailor came forward.
• My sister is out.
• I was abroad that winter.

4. Adverbs of degree answer the question “To what degree or extent?” They modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Thus,—

• Arthur is rather tall.
• Father was much pleased.
• Father was very much pleased.
• The task seemed utterly hopeless.
• That is hardly possible.
• That is not possible.

191. Some adverbs have the same form as the corresponding adjectives.

• You have guessed right.
• How fast the tide ebbs!
• The horse was sold cheap.
• Tired men sleep sound.

Under this head come certain adverbs of degree used to modify adjectives.

• His eyes were dark blue. [Compare: very blue.]
• That silk is light yellow. [Compare: rather yellow.]
• These flowers are deep purple. [Compare: intensely purple.]
• The water was icy cold. [Compare: extremely cold.]

That dark, light, etc., are adverbs in this use appears from the fact that they answer the question “How?” Thus,—“His eyes were blue.” “How blue?” “Dark blue.”

For adverbial phrases, see §§ 41–42, 475.

For the adverbial objective, see § 109.

192. Yes and no are peculiar adverbs used in assenting and denying. Thus,—

Are you hungry?

No.

193. There is often used merely to introduce a sentence in the inverted order (§ 5).

• There is a hole in my shoe.
• There are many strangers in town.
• There rose a thick smoke from the volcano.

In this use, there is sometimes called an expletive (or “filler”). It is unemphatic, and has lost all its force as an adverb of place. Contrast “There [emphatic] stood an Indian under a tree” with, “There [unemphatic expletive] stood an Indian under a tree.”

RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS

194. Relative adverbs introduce subordinate clauses and are similar in their use to relative pronouns.

I know a farmhouse {in which | where} we can spend the night.

Where is an adverb of place, modifying can spend. But it also introduces the subordinate clause, as the relative pronoun which does. Hence where is called a relative adverb.

195. The principal relative adverbs are:—where, whence, whither, wherever, when, whenever, while, as, how, why, before, after, till, until, since.

Because of their similarity to conjunctions, these words are often called conjunctive adverbs.

• He had a fever when he was in Spain.
• Work while it is day.
• As the ship passed, we observed that her decks were crowded with Malays. [Time.]
• Keep to the right, as the law directs. [Manner.]
• You started before I was ready.
• Wait until the car stops.
• Since you came, it has rained constantly.

As and since in the sense of “because,” and while in the sense of “although,” are classed as conjunctions (§ 368).

The clauses introduced by relative adverbs may be either adjective or adverbial (§§ 49–50, 379–382).

Note. In “The more you waste, the sooner you will want” (and similar sentences) the is not an article, but an old case-form of the pronoun that, used as an adverb of degree. We may expand the sentence as follows: “To what extent you waste more, to that extent you will want sooner.” Thus it appears that the first the has a relative force, and the second the a demonstrative force.

196. An interrogative adverb introduces a question.

Where, when, whence, whither, how, why, may be used as interrogative adverbs. Thus,—

• Where are you going?
• Why must you go?

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS

197. Adverbs have three degrees of comparison,—the positive, the comparative, and the superlative.

1. Most adverbs are compared by means of more and most.

• John came promptly. [Positive.]
• Richard came more promptly than John. [Comparative.]
• Henry came most promptly of all. [Superlative.]

2. A few adverbs are compared by means of the endings er and est. Thus,—

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
near	nearer	nearest
soon	sooner	soonest

Some adverbs are compared in both ways. Thus,—

• often, oftener or more often,
• oftenest or most often.

198. Several adverbs have irregular comparison.

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
far	farther	farthest
forth	further	furthest
ill	worse	worst
badly
nigh	nigher	nighest
		next
well	better	best
late	later	latest
		last
little	less	least
much	more	most

These adverbs in the main have the same forms as the adjectives studied in § 185 above. Note, however: (1) that good and bad are never adverbs; (2) that ill and well, better and best, worse and worst, may be either adverbs or adjectives. Rather is now used in the comparative only.

USE OF THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE

199. The comparative degree, not the superlative, is used in comparing two persons or things.

The superlative is used in comparing one person or thing with two or more.

Right:	Mary is the more agreeable of the two.
	Mary is the most agreeable of all the family.
Wrong:	I like both Mary and Jane, but I am fondest of Mary.
	I am studying Latin, history, and geometry, but I dislike the latter.

The same principle applies to adverbs.

• John runs faster than Tom. [Here the acts of two persons are compared.]
• Which of you three can run fastest? [Here the acts of more than two are compared.]

Note. In older English the superlative sometimes occurs when only two objects are thought of. This use is still found in a few proverbial phrases: as,—“Put your best foot foremost.”

200. The superlative is sometimes used merely for emphasis, without implying any definite comparison: as—“My dearest Kate!”

The superlative of emphasis is very common with most.

• Most potent, grave, and reverend signiors.—Shakspere.
• Justice had been most cruelly defrauded.—Wordsworth.

201. When two adjectives or adverbs are contrasted by means of than, more is used with the first.

• Such indulgence is more kind than wise.
• This scheme is more clever than honest.
• He acts more boldly than discreetly.

Note. The adverb rather is often used with the first adjective or adverb (as,—“rather kind than wise” or “kind rather than wise”), but in a slightly different sense.

202. Many adjectives and adverbs are, from their meaning, incapable of comparison. Such are:—

1. Adjectives expressing a quality as absolute or complete, and adverbs derived from such adjectives.

2. The adverbs here, there, then, now, when, and the like.

Note. Words like perfect, exact, straight, etc., are commonly said to be incapable of comparison, but this is an error. For each of these words may vary in sense. When perfect (for example) denotes absolute perfection, it cannot be compared. But perfect has also another sense: namely, “partaking in a higher or lower degree of the qualities that make up absolute perfection,” so that we may describe one statue as more perfect than another, or one of three statues as the most perfect of them all. In this use, which is unobjectionable, we simply admit that nothing in the world is absolutely flawless, and assert that the three statues approach ideal perfection in various degrees.

203. An adjective phrase may sometimes be compared by means of more and most.

• I was never more out of humor [= more vexed].
• I think your last suggestion most in keeping [= most appropriate].

NUMERALS—ADJECTIVES, NOUNS, AND ADVERBS

204. Words indicating number are called numerals. They are adjectives, nouns, or adverbs.

• There are seven days in the week. [Adjective.]
• Twelve make a dozen. [Noun.]
• I have called twice. [Adverb.]

205. The chief classes of numerals are cardinals and ordinals.

1. Cardinal numeral adjectives (one, two, three, four, etc.) are used in counting, and answer the question “How many?”

• I had to pay three dollars.
• There were forty-two vessels in the fleet.

Note. In such expressions as “The boy was sixteen,” the numeral is a predicate adjective limiting boy (§ 172, 3). We need not expand sixteen to “sixteen years old.”

2. Ordinal numeral adjectives (first, second, third, etc.) denote the position or order of a person or thing in a series.

• Carl plays the second violin.
• Your friend is sitting in the fifth row.

206. All the cardinal and ordinal numerals may become nouns and may take a plural ending in some of their senses.

• One is enough.
• Four are missing.
• The nine played an excellent game.
• Three twos are six.
• The men formed by fours.
• Thousands perished by the way.
• Eight is two thirds of twelve. [So regularly in fractional parts.]

Note. Hundred, thousand, million were originally nouns, but are now equally common as adjectives. Other numeral nouns are:—twain, couple, pair, brace, trio, quartette, quintette, foursome, dozen, score, century.

207. Certain numeral adjectives (single, double, triple, etc.) indicate how many times a thing is taken or of how many like parts it consists.

• A double row of policemen stood on guard.
• A fourfold layer of chilled steel forms the door.

Some of these words may be used as adverbs.

• The cabman charged double.
• His fear increased tenfold.

208. Certain numeral adverbs and adverbial phrases indicate how many times an action takes place.

• Once my assailant slipped.
• I rang the bell twice.
• The river hath thrice flow’d, no ebb between.—Shakspere.

The only adverbs of this kind in ordinary use are once and twice. For larger numbers an adverbial phrase (three times, four times, etc.) is employed. Thrice, however, is still common in poetry and the solemn style.

CHAPTER VI
VERBS

CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS

209. A verb is a word which can assert something (usually an action) concerning a person, place, or thing (§ 14).

Most verbs express action. Some, however, merely express state or condition. Thus,—

• 1. We jumped for joy.
• Rabbits burrow into the sides of hills.
• 2. While memory lasts, I can never forget you.
• This mountain belongs to the Appalachian range.

A verb-phrase is a group of words that is used as a verb (§ 15).

• The leaves are turning.
• The money has been found.

210. Certain verbs, when used to make verb-phrases, are called auxiliary (that is, “aiding”) verbs, because they help other verbs to express action or state of some particular kind (§ 16).

The auxiliary verbs are is (are, was, were, etc.), may, can, must, might, shall, will, could, would, should, have, had, do, did.

• I am writing.
• We must go.
• You will fall.
• He has forgotten me.
• We had failed.
• I do see him.

The auxiliary verb may be separated from the rest of the verb-phrase by other words.

• I have always liked him.
• I shall soon send for you.
• Robert was completely bewildered.
• He has hardly ever spoken to me.

211. Verbs are either transitive or intransitive (§ 99).

Some verbs may be followed by a substantive denoting that which receives the action or is produced by it. These are called transitive verbs. All other verbs are called intransitive.

A substantive that completes the meaning of a transitive verb is called its direct object.

In the following sentences, the first four verbs are transitive (with objects), the last five are intransitive (without objects):—

• Lightning shattered the oak.
• Clouds darkened the sky.
• Chemists extract radium from pitchblende.
• The orator quoted Tennyson incorrectly.
• Look where he stands and glares!
• The bankrupt absconded.
• The orange sky of evening died away.
• The words differ in a single letter.

212. A verb which is transitive in one of its senses may be intransitive in another.

Transitive (with Object)	Intransitive (without Object)
Boys fly kites.	Birds fly.
The pirates sank the ship.	The stone sank.
I closed my eyes.	School closed yesterday.
Tom tore his coat.	The cloth tore easily.

213. Many transitive verbs may be used absolutely,—that is, merely to express action without any indication of the direct object.

Transitive Verb with Object expressed	Transitive Verb used absolutely
The horses drank water.	The horses drank from the brook.
The farmer plows his fields.	The farmer plows in the spring.
Charles is drawing a picture.	Charles is drawing.

There is a sharp contrast between a transitive verb used absolutely and a real intransitive verb. To the former we can always add an object; with the latter no object is possible.

214. Is (in its various forms) and several other verbs may be used to frame sentences in which some word or words in the predicate describe or define the subject (§ 17).

Such verbs are called copulative (that is, “joining”) verbs.

Is in this use is often called the copula (or “link”).

• Time is money.
• Grant was a tireless worker.
• Macbeth became a tyrant.
• His swans always prove geese.
• The current is sluggish.
• Lions are carnivorous.
• This village looks prosperous.
• The consul’s brow grew stern.
• The queen turned pale.

In the first four examples, the copulative verb (the simple predicate²⁶) is followed by a predicate nominative (§ 88, 2); in the last five by a predicate adjective (§ 172, 3).

The copulative verbs are intransitive, since they take no object. Sometimes, however, they are regarded as a third class distinct both from transitive and intransitive verbs.

215. The verb is is not always a copula. It is sometimes emphatic and has the sense of exist.

• I think. Therefore I am. [That is, I exist.]
• Whatever is, is right. [The second is is the copula.]

Most of the other copulative verbs may be used in some sense in which they cease to be copulative.

• The lawyer proved his case.
• Walnut trees grow slowly.
• Mr. Watson grows peaches.
• The wheel turned slowly on the axle.
• He turned his head and looked at me.

INFLECTION OF VERBS

216. Verbs have inflections of tense, person and number, and mood. They also have the distinction of voice, which is expressed by the help of verb-phrases.

Tense indicates time; person and number correspond with person and number in substantives; mood shows the manner in which the action is expressed; voice indicates whether the subject acts or is acted upon.

TENSE OF VERBS

217. The tense of a verb indicates its time.²⁷

Verbs have forms of tense to indicate present, past, or future time.

1. A verb in the present tense refers to present time.

2. A verb in the past tense refers to past time.²⁸

3. A verb in the future tense refers to future time.

The present, the past, and the future are called simple tenses.

Present Tense	Past Tense	Future Tense
He lives here.	He lived here.	He will live here.
The sun shines.	The sun shone.	The sun will shine.
I know him.	I knew him.	I shall know him.

FORMS OF THE PRESENT AND THE PAST

218. The present and the past tense have special forms of inflection.

For the moment we will consider the form which the verb has when its subject is the first personal pronoun I.

In the present tense the verb has its simplest form, without any inflectional ending.

• I like it.
• I hope for the best.
• I dwell in the wilderness.
• I find him amusing.

219. The past tense is formed in two ways, and a verb is classed as weak or strong in accordance with the way in which it forms this tense.

1. Weak verbs form the past tense by adding ed, d, or t to the present.

2. Strong verbs form the past tense by changing the vowel of the present, without the addition of an ending.

Weak verbs are sometimes called regular, and strong verbs irregular verbs.

For a list of the strong verbs see pp. 291–297.

Note. The terms strong and weak were first applied to verbs for a somewhat fanciful reason. The strong verbs were so called because they seemed to form the past tense out of their own resources, without calling to their assistance any ending. The weak verbs were so called because they could not form the past tense without the aid of the ending ed, d, or t.

220. The ending that is written ed is fully pronounced only when d or t precedes (as,—thread, threaded; attract, attracted). Otherwise, e is silent, so that the ending becomes, in pronunciation, d or t (as,—entered, pronounced enter’d; rocked, pronounced rockt).

In poetry and the solemn style, however, the silent e in the ending ed is sometimes restored to its ancient rights.

221. Many weak verbs show special irregularities in the past tense.

1. Make has made in the past, and have has had.

2. Some verbs in -nd and -ld form their past tense by changing this d to t.

3. A few verbs add d or t in the past and also change the vowel of the present. Thus,—

sell	sold
tell	told
shoe	shod
say	said (pronounced sed)
hear	heard (pronounced herd)
bring	brought
buy	bought
catch	caught
seek	sought
beseech	besought
teach	taught
methinks	methought

Work has an old past tense wrought, common in poetry; its usual past is worked. For must, would, etc., see p. 299.

4. Some verbs that have a long vowel sound in the present have in the past a short vowel sound before the ending t.

5. Some verbs in d or t preceded by a long vowel sound have a short vowel in the past but add no ending.

6. Some verbs in d or t have in the past the same form as in the present.

Note. The verbs in 5 and 6 might appear to be strong verbs, since they have no ending in the past and some of them change the vowel. They are, however, all weak verbs. Their lack of ending is due to the fact that the d or t of the termination has been absorbed in the final d or t of the verb itself. Thus, the past set was originally settë (dissyllabic), and this form, after the loss of -ë, became indistinguishable in sound from set, the present.

For lists of irregular weak verbs, see pp. 291–299.

PERSON AND NUMBER—THE PERSONAL ENDINGS

222. A verb must agree with its subject in number and person.

Verbs, like substantives, have two numbers (singular and plural) and three persons (first, second, and third).

The singular number denotes a single person or thing. The plural number denotes more than one person or thing.

The first person denotes the speaker; the second person denotes the person spoken to; the third person denotes the person or thing spoken of.

223. The inflections of person and number in verbs may be seen by framing sentences with the personal pronouns as subjects. Thus,—

Present Tense
SINGULAR	PLURAL
1. I walk.	1. We walk.
2. Thou walk-est.	2. You walk.
3. He walk-s [old form, walk-eth].	3. They walk.
Past Tense
SINGULAR	PLURAL
1. I walked.	1. We walked.
2. Thou walked-st.	2. You walked.
3. He walked.	3. They walked.

From the sentences it is evident (1) that the person and number of a verb are usually shown by its subject only, but (2) that some verb-forms have special endings which denote person and number.

224. The endings by means of which a verb indicates person and number are called personal endings.

1. In the present tense a verb has two personal endings, est for the second person singular and s for the third person singular (old form eth).

The first person singular and all three persons of the plural are alike. The simplest form of the verb is used and no personal ending is added.

2. The past tense has but one personal ending,—est or st in the second person singular.³¹

The forms in est or st are confined to poetry and the solemn style. In ordinary language, the second person plural is used to address a single person.

The following table shows the personal endings of the present and the past tense:—

Personal Endings

Present Tense		Past Tense
SINGULAR	PLURAL	SINGULAR	PLURAL
1. [no ending]	1. [no ending]	1. [no ending]	1. [no ending]
2. -est, -st	2. [no ending]	2. -est, -st	2. [no ending]
3. -s [old, -eth]	3. [no ending]	3. [no ending]	3. [no ending]

Conjugation of the Present and the Past

225. The inflection of a verb is called its conjugation (§ 53). When we inflect a verb we are said to conjugate it.

Conjugation of the Weak Verb Walk

Present Tense
SINGULAR	PLURAL
1. I walk.	1. We walk.
2. Thou walkest.32	2. You walk.
3. He walks.	3. They walk.
Past Tense
SINGULAR	PLURAL
1. I walked.	1. We walked.
2. Thou walkedst.	2. You walked.
3. He walked.	3. They walked.

Conjugation of the Strong Verb Find

Present Tense
SINGULAR	PLURAL
1. I find.	1. We find.
2. Thou findest.	2. You find.
3. He finds.	3. They find.
Past Tense
SINGULAR	PLURAL
1. I found.	1. We found.
2. Thou foundest.	2. You found.
3. He found.	3. They found.

Conjugation of the Copula

Present Tense
SINGULAR	PLURAL
1. I am.	1. We are.
2. Thou art.	2. You are.
3. He is.	3. They are.
Past Tense
SINGULAR	PLURAL
1. I was.	1. We were.
2. Thou wast.	2. You were.
3. He was.	3. They were.

Special Rules of Number and Person

226. When the subject is compound (§ 38), the number of the verb is determined by the following rules:—

1. A compound subject with and usually takes a verb in the plural number.

• My brother and sister play tennis.
• The governor and the mayor are cousins.

2. A compound subject with or or nor takes a verb in the singular number if the substantives are singular.

• Either my brother or my sister is sure to win.
• Neither the governor nor the mayor favors this appointment.

3. A compound subject with and expressing but a single idea sometimes takes a verb in the singular number.

The sum and substance [= gist] of the matter is this.

Note. This construction is rare in modern English prose. It is for the most part confined to such idiomatic phrases as end and aim (= purpose), the long and short of it, etc. The poets, however, use the construction freely (as in Kipling’s “The tumult and the shouting dies”).

4. If the substantives connected by or or nor differ in number or person, the verb usually agrees with the nearer.

• Either you or he is to blame.
• Neither you nor he is an Austrian.
• Neither John nor we were at home.
• Neither the mayor nor the aldermen favor this law.

But colloquial usage varies, and such expressions are avoided by careful writers. The following sentences show how this may be done:—

• Either you are to blame, or he is.
• One of you two is to blame.
• Neither of you is an Austrian.
• He is not afraid; neither am I.
• Both John and we were away from home.

227. In such expressions as the following, the subject is not compound, and the verb agrees with its singular subject:—

• The governor with his staff is present.
• John, as well as Mary, is in London.
• Tom, along with his friends Dick and Bob, is taking a sail.

228. Nouns that are plural in form but singular in sense commonly take a verb in the singular number (§ 84).

• Economics is an important study.
• The gallows has been abolished in Massachusetts.

In some words usage varies. Thus, pains, in the sense of care or effort, is sometimes regarded as a singular and sometimes as a plural.

Great pains has (or have) been taken about the matter.

229. Collective nouns take sometimes a singular and sometimes a plural verb.

When the persons or things denoted are thought of as individuals, the plural should be used. When the collection is regarded as a unit, the singular should be used.³³

• 1. The Senior Class requests the pleasure of your company. [Here the class is thought of collectively, acting as a unit.]
• 2. The Senior Class are unable to agree upon a president. [Here the speaker has in mind the individuals of whom the class is composed.]
• 3. The nation welcomes Prince Joseph. [The whole nation unites as a single individual to welcome a distinguished guest.]
• 4. The American nation are descended from every other nation on earth. [The separate qualities of the individuals who constitute the nation are in the speaker’s mind.]

230. A number in the sense of “several” or “many” regularly takes the plural; the number takes the singular.

• A number of sailors were loitering on the pier.
• The number of tickets is limited.

231. Half, part, portion, and the like, take either the singular or the plural according to sense.

• Half of a circle is a semicircle.
• Half of the passengers were lost.

232. A verb which has for its subject a relative pronoun is in the same person and number as the antecedent. For examples, see § 149.

Errors are especially common in such sentences as,—

• This is one of the strangest sights that ever were seen. [The antecedent of that is sights (not one); hence the relative (that) is plural, and accordingly the verb is plural (were, not was).]
• Mr. Winn’s oration was among the most eloquent that have [NOT has] been delivered in this state for many years.
• This is one of the finest paintings there are in the hall. [For the omission of the relative, see § 151.]

THE FUTURE TENSE

233. The future tense is a verb-phrase consisting of the auxiliary verb shall or will followed by the infinitive without to (§ 29).

The following table shows the form of the future for each of the three persons (1) in assertions and (2) in questions:—

Future Tense

Assertions (Declarative)
SINGULAR	PLURAL
1. I shall fall.	1. We shall fall.
2. Thou wilt fall.	2. You will fall.
3. He will fall.	3. They will fall.
Questions (Interrogative)
SINGULAR	PLURAL
1. Shall I fall?	1. Shall we fall?
2. Shalt thou fall?	2. Shall you fall?
3. Will he fall?	3. Will they fall?

234. Common errors are the use of will for shall (1) in the first person in assertions and questions, and (2) in the second person in questions.

In the following sentences the first person of the future tense is correctly formed:—

I shall [NOT will] drown.	Shall [NOT will] I drown?
I shall [NOT will] fail.	Shall [NOT will] I fail?
We shall [NOT will] sink.	Shall [NOT will] we sink?

The verb-phrases with shall express merely the action of the verb in future time. They do not indicate any willingness or desire on the part of the subject.

Contrast the following sentences, in which I will or we will is used:—

• I will go with you.
• I will give you what you ask.
• I will not endure it.
• We will allow you to enter.
• We will have the truth.

Here the verb-phrases with will do not (as in the previous examples of I shall) express the action of the verb in future time. They express the present willingness or desire or determination of the speaker to do something in the future.

Hence such verb-phrases with will in the first person are not forms of the future tense. They are special verb-phrases expressing willingness or desire.

235. In the first person shall, not will, is the auxiliary of the future tense in both assertions and questions. It denotes simple futurity, without expressing willingness, desire, or determination.

Will in the first person is used in promising, threatening, consenting, and expressing resolution. It never denotes simple futurity.

I. Simple Futurity (Future Tense)

• I shall be eighteen years old in July. [Not: will be.]
• Hurry, or we shall miss our train. [Not: will miss.]
• We shall be glad to see him. [Not: will be.]

II. Promises, Threats, etc.

• I will subscribe to your fund. [Promise.]
• We will do our best. [Promise.]
• I will discharge you if you are late again. [Threat.]
• We will permit you to go. [Consent.]
• I will have obedience. [Resolution.]

I’ll and we’ll are contractions of I will and we will and can never stand for I shall and we shall.

• I’ll meet you at noon. [Promise.]
• I’ll never consent. [Resolution.]
• We’ll be revenged on you. [Threat.]

236. When willingness is expressed by an adjective, I shall is correct; when by an adverb, I will. Thus,—

• I shall be glad to help you.
• I will gladly help you.

237. Will, when emphasized, always expresses determination on the part of the subject, even in the second and third persons.

• I WILL go, no matter what you say.
• {You WILL | He WILL} act foolishly, in spite of my advice.

238. In the second person Shall you? not Will you? is the proper form of the future tense in questions.

Will you? always denotes willingness, consent, or determination, and never simple futurity.

Note that in questions in the second person, the auxiliary used is the same as that expected in the answer.

I. Future Tense (Simple Futurity)

• Shall you be disappointed if he does not come? [I shall.]
• Shall you regret his absence? [I shall.]
• Shall you go by boat or by train? [I shall go by boat.]

II. Verb-Phrase denoting Willingness, etc.

• Will you write often? [I will.]
• Will you allow me to help you? [I will.]
• Will you be so kind as to open the window? [I will.]

239. Shall in the second and third persons is not the sign of the future tense in declarative sentences.

It is used in commanding, promising, threatening, and expressing resolution, the volition being that of the speaker.

• Thou shalt not kill. [Command.]
• You shall have the hat before Monday. [Promise.]
• You shall pay for this insult! [Threat.]
• She shall not regret her generosity. [Resolution.]

In prophetic language, shall is common in the second and third persons, even when there is no idea of commanding or the like.

The sun shall be turned into darkness and the moon into blood.—Joel ii. 31.

240. In military orders and official communications, custom permits the more courteous will in the place of shall in the second and third persons.

• You will immediately report for orders.
• Heads of Departments will submit their estimates before January first.

For shall and will in subordinate clauses, see pp. 130–132.

241. Future time may also be expressed by the present tense, or by about or going with the infinitive (§ 319).

• We sail for Havana on Tuesday.
• They are about to begin the study of Greek.

COMPLETE OR COMPOUND TENSES

242. Completed action is denoted by special verb-phrases made by prefixing to the past participle some form of the auxiliary verb have.

These are called the complete or compound tenses.

There are three complete or compound tenses,—the perfect (or present perfect), the pluperfect (or past perfect), and the future perfect.

1. The perfect (or present perfect) tense denotes that the action of the verb is complete at the time of speaking. It is formed by prefixing have (hast, has) to the past participle.

• I have learned my lesson.
• He has convinced me.

Note. With several verbs of motion the auxiliary be is sometimes used instead of have: as,—“My friends are gone” (or “have gone”); “Your time is come” (or “has come”).

2. The pluperfect (or past perfect) tense denotes that the action was completed at some point in past time. It is formed by prefixing had (hadst) to the past participle.

• Before night fell, I had finished the book.
• When Blake had spoken, Allen rose to reply.

3. The future perfect tense denotes that the action will be completed at some point in future time. It is formed by prefixing the future tense of have (shall have, etc.) to the past participle.

Before I hear from you again, I shall have landed at Naples.

The future perfect tense is rare except in very formal writing.

243. The forms of the past participle will be studied in § 334. Meanwhile, the following practical rule will serve every purpose:—

The past participle is that verb-form which is used after I have.

244. A verb-phrase made by prefixing having to the past participle is called the perfect participle.

Having reached my destination, I stopped.

A verb-phrase made by prefixing to have to the past participle is called the perfect infinitive.

I am sorry to have missed you.

245. Three forms of the verb are so important that they are called the principal parts. These are:—

• (1) the first person singular of the present;
• (2) the first person singular of the past;
• (3) the past participle.

Present	Past	Past Participle
(I) walk	(I) walked	walked
(I) think	(I) thought	thought
(I) see	(I) saw	seen
(I) come	(I) came	come
(I) make	(I) made	made

VOICE—ACTIVE AND PASSIVE

246. Voice is that property of verbs which indicates whether the subject acts or is acted upon.

There are two voices, active and passive.

1. A verb is in the active voice when it represents the subject as the doer of an act.

• Richard shot the bear.
• Mr. Hardy builds carriages.
• Dr. Wilson has cured my father.

2. A verb is in the passive voice when it represents the subject as the receiver or the product of an action.

• The bear was shot by Richard.
• Carriages are built by Mr. Hardy.
• My father has been cured by Dr. Wilson.

247. The passive voice of a verb is expressed by a verb-phrase made by prefixing some form of the copula (is, was, etc.) to the past participle.

In the passive voice of the complete tenses, the past participle been follows the proper form of the auxiliary have (as in the third example in § 246, 2).

The passive of the infinitive is made by prefixing to be (perfect, to have been) to the past participle. Thus,—

• Present infinitive passive: to be struck.
• Perfect infinitive passive: to have been struck.

248. The following table gives the conjugation of the verb strike in the active and passive of the six tenses:—

Active Voice	Passive Voice
Present Tense
SINGULAR
1. I strike.	1. I am struck.
2. Thou strikest.	2. Thou art struck.
3. He strikes.	3. He is struck.
PLURAL
1. We strike.	1. We are struck.
2. You strike.	2. You are struck.
3. They strike.	3. They are struck.
Past Tense
SINGULAR
1. I struck.	1. I was struck.
2. Thou struckest.	2. Thou wast (or wert) struck.
3. He struck.	3. He was struck.
PLURAL
1. We struck.	1. We were struck.
2. You struck.	2. You were struck.
3. They struck.	3. They were struck.
Future Tense
SINGULAR
1. I shall strike.	1. I shall be struck.
2. Thou wilt strike.	2. Thou wilt be struck.
3. He will strike.	3. He will be struck.
PLURAL
1. We shall strike.	1. We shall be struck.
2. You will strike.	2. You will be struck.
3. They will strike.	3. They will be struck.
Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense
SINGULAR
1. I have struck.	1. I have been struck.
2. Thou hast struck.	2. Thou hast been struck.
3. He has struck.	3. He has been struck.
PLURAL
1. We have struck.	1. We have been struck.
2. You have struck.	2. You have been struck.
3. They have struck.	3. They have been struck.
Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense
SINGULAR
1. I had struck.	1. I had been struck.
2. Thou hadst struck.	2. Thou hadst been struck.
3. He had struck.	3. He had been struck.
PLURAL
1. We had struck.	1. We had been struck.
2. You had struck.	2. You had been struck.
3. They had struck.	3. They had been struck.
Future Perfect Tense
SINGULAR
1. I shall have struck.	1. I shall have been struck.
2. Thou wilt have struck.	2. Thou wilt have been struck.
3. He will have struck.	3. He will have been struck.
PLURAL
1. We shall have struck.	1. We shall have been struck.
2. You will have struck.	2. You will have been struck.
3. They will have struck.	3. They will have been struck.

Use of the Passive Voice

249. Any sentence of which the predicate is a transitive verb followed by an object, may be changed from the active to the passive form without affecting the sense.

• Active. Richard shot the bear.
• Passive. The bear was shot by Richard.

In this change, (1) bear, the object of the active verb shot, becomes the subject of the passive verb was shot; and (2) Richard, the subject of the active verb shot, becomes by Richard, an adverbial phrase, modifying the passive verb was shot. Thus we have the rule:—

The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the passive, and the subject of the active verb becomes in the passive an adverbial phrase modifying the predicate verb.

Active Voice	Passive Voice
My cat caught a bird.	A bird was caught by my cat.
Austin thanked Charles.	Charles was thanked by Austin.
The bullet penetrated a tree.	A tree was penetrated by the bullet.
Sargent painted that portrait.	That portrait was painted by Sargent.
The fireman had saved the child.	The child had been saved by the fireman.

250. Intransitive verbs are ordinarily used in the active voice only.

• The bystanders laughed.
• The watchdogs bark.
• Snow is falling.

251. An intransitive verb followed by a preposition is often used in the passive, the object of the preposition becoming the subject of the verb.

Active Voice	Passive Voice
Everybody laughed at him.	He was laughed at by everybody.
The attorney general has not yet passed upon this bill.	This bill has not yet been passed upon.
He has tampered with this lock.	This lock has been tampered with.
The cart ran over me.	I was run over by the cart.

Note. In this idiom, the preposition is treated like an ending attached to the verb to make it transitive. In other words, laugh at, pass upon, etc., are treated as compound verbs, and the object of the preposition is, in effect, the object of the compound. In the passive, this object becomes the subject and the preposition (now lacking an object) remains attached to the verb. The passive construction is well established, but not always graceful.

252. The passive of some verbs of choosing, calling, naming, making, and thinking may be followed by a predicate nominative (§ 88, 2).

Active Voice	Passive Voice
(PREDICATE OBJECTIVE)	(PREDICATE NOMINATIVE)
We elected John president.	John was elected president.
The Roman people called the chief friend.	The chief was called friend by the Roman people.
The herald proclaimed him emperor.	He was proclaimed emperor by the herald.

Note. In the active voice, these verbs may take two objects referring to the same person or thing,—a direct object and a predicate objective (§ 104). In the passive, the direct object becomes the subject, and the predicate objective becomes a predicate nominative, agreeing with the subject (§ 88, 2).

Object of the Passive

253. When a verb takes both a direct and an indirect object, one of the two is often retained after the passive, the other becoming the subject. Thus,—

1. The indirect object is retained.

Active Voice	Passive Voice
My aunt gave me this watch.	This watch was given me by my aunt.
We allowed them free choice.	Free choice was allowed them.
He allowed each speaker an hour.	An hour was allowed each speaker.
Congress granted me a pension.	A pension was granted me.

Note. The preposition to is often inserted in the passive construction, especially with a noun; as,—“A small pension was granted to Dr. Johnson.”

2. The direct object is retained.

Active Voice	Passive Voice
We allowed them their choice.	They were allowed their choice.
He allowed each speaker an hour.	Each speaker was allowed an hour.
They showed me the way.	I was shown the way.
Experience has taught me wisdom.	I have been taught wisdom by experience.

The direct object after a passive verb is often called the retained object.

Note. This construction, though common, is avoided by many careful writers, except in a few well-established idioms. Its habitual use gives one’s style a heavy and awkward air. Instead of “He was given permission,” one may say “He received permission”; instead of “I was given this watch by my aunt,” either “It was my aunt who gave me this watch” or “This watch was a present from my aunt.”

254. The verb ask, which may take two direct objects,—one denoting the person, the other the thing,—sometimes retains its second object in the passive construction (§ 103).

• Active. We asked him his opinion.
• Passive. He was asked his opinion.

PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES

255. In addition to the tense-forms already described, verbs have so-called progressive forms.

The progressive form of a tense represents the action of the verb as going on or continuing at the time referred to.

• I ate my dinner.
• I was eating my dinner.
• While I was quietly reading by my fireside, strange things were taking place in the square.

Both ate and was eating are in the past tense. But ate merely expresses a past action, whereas was eating describes this action as continuing or in progress in past time.

256. The progressive form is a verb-phrase made by prefixing to the present participle some form of the verb to be.

Progressive Form

Active Voice	Present Tense
SINGULAR	PLURAL
1. I am striking.	1. We are striking.
2. Thou art striking.	2. You are striking.
3. He is striking.	3. They are striking.

So in the other tenses:

Past	I was striking, etc.
Future	I shall be striking, etc.
Perfect	I have been striking, etc.
Pluperfect	I had been striking, etc.
Future perfect	I shall have been striking, etc.

Passive Voice

Present	I am being struck, etc.
Past	I was being struck, etc.

257. In the passive, the progressive forms are confined to the present and the past tense.

• He is being helped by his brother. [Present.]
• I am being trained by Arthur Ray. [Present.]
• When I called, tea was being served. [Past.]

258. In subordinate clauses, the verb is (in its various forms) with its subject is often omitted in progressive phrases.

• While waiting for the train, I bought a newspaper. [That is, While I was waiting.]
• Though [he was] swimming vigorously, he could not stem the tide.
• When [I am] reading, I like to have the light shine over my left shoulder.

In parsing, the omitted words should be supplied.

259. For such progressive forms as is building for is being built, see § 352.

EMPHATIC VERB-PHRASES

260. The present or the past of a verb in the active voice may be expressed with emphasis by means of a verb-phrase consisting of do or did and the infinitive without to.

Such a phrase is called the emphatic form of the present or past tense.

“I do see you” and “I did go” differ from “I see you” and “I went” merely in emphasis. Hence do see is called the emphatic form of the present tense of see, and did go the emphatic form of the past tense of go.

261. In questions and in negative statements the emphatic forms are used without the effect of emphasis.

Did you go? I did not go.

MOOD OF VERBS

262. Mood is that property of verbs which shows the manner in which the action or state is expressed.

Mood (or mode) is derived from the Latin word modus, “manner.”

Compare the following sentences, noting the form of the verb in each:

• Richard is quiet.
• Is Richard quiet?
• If Richard were quiet, I might study.
• Richard, be quiet.

In the first and second sentences, the form is is used to assert or question a fact; in the third, the form were expresses a condition or supposition that is contrary to fact; in the fourth, the form be expresses a command or request.

The difference in form seen in the verb in these sentences is called a difference of mood.

263. There are three moods,—the indicative, the imperative, and the subjunctive.

1. The indicative is the mood of simple assertion or interrogation, but it is used in other constructions also.

2. The imperative is the mood of command or request.

3. The subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions of wish, condition, and the like.

Thus, in the examples in § 262, is is in the indicative, were in the subjunctive, and be in the imperative mood.

I. INDICATIVE MOOD

264. The ordinary forms of the indicative mood in the active and the passive voice and in all six tenses,—present, past, future, perfect (or present perfect), pluperfect (or past perfect), and future perfect,—may be seen in the table on pp. 108–110.

For the progressive form of the indicative, see § 256; for the emphatic form, see § 260.

265. The commonest uses of the indicative mood are in statements or questions as to matters of fact; but it may express almost any other form of thought. Thus,

• Time and tide wait for no man. [Assertion.]
• How goes the world with you? [Interrogation.]
• How it rains! [Exclamation.]
• If the river rises, the dam will be swept away. [Supposition.]
• I suspect that he has absconded. [Doubt.]
• I hope that John will come soon. [Desire.]
• Though Ellen dislikes algebra, she never shirks. [Concession.]
• You will report for duty immediately. [Command.]
• Will you allow me to use your knife? [Request.]

Note. The indicative and the subjunctive were originally quite distinct in form, and each had its own set of constructions. But, as our language has grown simpler in its structure, the forms of these two moods have become almost identical, and the uses of the indicative have been greatly multiplied at the expense of the subjunctive. Indeed, there is scarcely any variety of thought expressed by the subjunctive or the imperative for which the indicative cannot also be employed. It is therefore impossible to frame any satisfactory definition of the indicative. Its functions are too varied to be included in one general statement. The indicative is often described as the mood which asserts thought as a fact, and the subjunctive as the mood which expresses thought as supposition (or as mere thought). But the indicative, as well as the subjunctive, may express supposition, condition, doubt, desire, concession, etc. Hence the definitions in § 263 are as exact as the facts of the language allow. All the efforts of grammarians to devise more “accurate” definitions break down when tested by actual usage.

II. IMPERATIVE MOOD

266. The imperative is the mood of command or request.

• Hurry!
• Lie down.
• Shut the door.
• Have patience.
• Light the lamp.
• Show us the way.
• Wait a moment.
• Come to dinner.

The imperative has both voices, active and passive, but only one tense,—the present. It has both numbers, the singular and the plural, but only one person, the second. It has the same form for both the singular and the plural.

267. 1. The imperative active is the verb in its simplest form.

For examples, see § 266.

The imperative of the verb to be is be. Thus,—

• Be brave.
• Be careful.
• Be sure you are right.
• Be here at noon.

2. The imperative passive is a verb-phrase consisting of be and a past participle.

• Be trusted rather than feared.
• Study your failures and be instructed by them.

268. The subject of an imperative is seldom expressed unless it is emphatic.

The subject, when expressed, may precede the imperative: as,—You sit here.

Note. In older English, the subject often followed the imperative: as,—Go thou, Go you, Hear ye. This use is now confined to the solemn style and to poetry.

269. The emphatic form of the imperative consists of the imperative do, followed by the infinitive without to.

• Do tell me what he said.
• Do stand still.

The form with do is often used when the subject is expressed as,—Do you remain.

270. Prohibition (or negative command) is commonly expressed by means of the form with do.

• Do not open a closed door without knocking.
• Do not forget to say “thank you.”

In poetry and the solemn style prohibition is often expressed by the simple imperative with not.

• Tell me not what too well I know.
• Devise not evil against thy neighbor.
• Seek not to learn my name.

271. Commands are sometimes expressed in the indicative by means of shall or will (§§ 239–240).

• Thou shalt not steal.
• You will leave the room immediately.

III: SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

Forms of the Subjunctive

272. The subjunctive mood is used in certain special constructions of wish, condition, and the like.

In older English, the subjunctive forms were common in a variety of uses, as they still are in poetry and the solemn style. In ordinary prose, however, subjunctive forms are rare, and in conversation they are hardly ever heard, except in the case of the copula be.

The subjunctive forms of be are the following:—

Subjunctive Mood

Present Tense
SINGULAR	PLURAL
1. If I be.	1. If we be.
2. If thou be.	2. If you be.
3. If he be.	3. If they be.
Past Tense
SINGULAR	PLURAL
1. If I were.	1. If we were.
2. If thou wert.	2. If you were.
3. If he were.	3. If they were.
Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense
SINGULAR	PLURAL
1. If I have been.	1. If we have been.
2. If thou have been.	2. If you have been.
3. If he have been.	3. If they have been.
Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense
SINGULAR	PLURAL
1. If I had been.	1. If we had been.
2. If thou hadst been.	2. If you had been.
3. If he had been.	3. If they had been.

If is used in the paradigm because it is in clauses beginning with if that the subjunctive is commonest in modern English; but if is of course no part of the subjunctive inflection.

273. In other verbs, the subjunctive active has the same forms as the indicative, except in the second and third persons singular of the present and the perfect, which are like the first person:—

Present	Perfect
1. If I strike.	1. If I have struck.
2. If thou strike.	2. If thou have struck.
3. If he strike.	3. If he have struck.

In the passive subjunctive, the subjunctive forms of the copula (§ 272) are used as auxiliaries:—present, If I be struck; past, If I were struck; perfect, If I have been struck; pluperfect, If I had been struck. (See table, p. 304.)

274. Progressive verb-phrases in the subjunctive may be formed by means of the copula:—present, If I be striking; past, If I were striking. The present is rare; the past is common.

Uses of the Subjunctive

Subjunctive in Wishes and Exhortations

275. The subjunctive is often used in wishes or prayers.

• Angels and ministers of grace defend us!
• Heaven help him!
• The saints preserve us!
• God bless you!
• Long live the king!
• O that I had listened to him!
• O that we were rid of him!

In the first five examples, the wish is expressed in an independent sentence. In the last two, the construction is subordinate,—the that-clause being the object of an unexpressed “I wish” (§ 407).

276. The subjunctive be is often omitted when it may easily be supplied.

• Peace [be] to his ashes!
• Honor [be] to his memory!
• Honor [be] to whom honor is due!

277. Wishes are often introduced by may or would.

• May you never want!
• Would that he were safe!
• Would you were with us! [For Would that.]

May and would in such expressions were originally subjunctives; would stands for I would, that is, I should wish. Want in the first example is an infinitive without to (§ 311). For wishes expressed by the infinitive, see § 320.

278. Exhortations in the first person plural sometimes take the subjunctive in elevated or poetical style.

• Hear we the king!
• Join we in a hymn of praise!

Exhortation is ordinarily expressed by let us followed by the infinitive without to.

• Let us join hands.
• Let us have peace.
• Let’s camp here.

Let is a verb in the imperative mood, us is its object, and the infinitive (join, have, camp) depends on let.

Subjunctives in Concessions, Conditions, etc.

279. The subjunctive is used after though, although, to express an admission or concession not as a fact but as a supposition.

• Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him.
• Though he were to beg this on his knees, I should still refuse.

When the concession is stated as an admitted fact, the indicative is regular.

• Although he is a foreigner, he speaks good English.
• Though he sometimes sings, he is not now in good voice.

280. After if and unless, expressing condition, the subjunctive may be used in a variety of ways.

• 1. If this be gold, our fortune is made. [It may or may not be gold.]
• 2. If he confess, I shall overlook the offence. [He may or may not confess.]
• 3. Unless he confess, he cannot be convicted. [He may or may not confess.]
• 4. If this were gold, our fortune would be made. [It is not gold; hence our fortune is not made.]
• 5. If he stood before me at this moment, I should tell him my opinion. [He does not stand before me; hence I do not tell him.]
• 6. If he had confessed, I should have overlooked his fault. [He did not confess; hence I did not overlook it.]
• 7. Unless he had confessed, he could not have been convicted. [He did confess; hence he was convicted.]

In conditional clauses, the present subjunctive denotes either present or future time. It puts the supposed case doubtfully, but not necessarily as improbable. (See examples 1–3.)

The past subjunctive refers to present time. It implies that the supposed case is not now a fact. (See examples 4 and 5.)

The pluperfect (or past perfect) subjunctive refers to past time. It implies that the supposed case was not a fact. (See 6 and 7.)

For details of conditional sentences, see pp. 167–172.

281. Concession or condition may be expressed by the subjunctive without though or if, the verb preceding the subject, which is sometimes omitted.

I. Concession

• Try as we may, we cannot swim to that rock.
• Say what he will, he can never convince me.
• Come what will, I’ll stand my ground.
• Be that as it may, my mind is made up.

II. Condition

• Were I asked, I could tell all the facts. [If I were asked, etc.]
• Had I known, I would have written to you. [If I had known, etc.]
• I shall be twenty years old, come Tuesday. [If Tuesday come, etc.]
• I will go, rain or shine. [If it rain, or if it shine, etc.]
• Be he prince or be he pauper, every guest is welcome here.

Note. The subjunctive in these concessive and conditional uses is really the same as that in exhortations (§ 278). “Try [we] as we may” means literally, “Let us try as hard as we can,” and this has the force of “However hard we try” or “Although we try ever so hard.”

282. After as if (as though), the past subjunctive is used.

• He looks as if he were about to speak. [Not: as if he was about to speak.]
• I act as if I were crazy. [Not: as if I was crazy.]

283. The subjunctive may express not what is or was, but what would be or would have been, the case.

• It were safer to travel by day. [It would be safer, etc.]
• I had been wiser had I forded the river. [I should have been wiser if I had.]

This construction is old-fashioned. Modern English commonly uses should (or would) be, should (or would) have been, instead.

284. The subjunctive is occasionally used after that, lest, before, until, etc., in subordinate clauses referring to the future and commonly expressing purpose or expectation.

• Take heed that he escape not. [Purpose.]
• Give him food lest he perish. [Purpose.]
• Let us tarry until he come. [Expectation.]

This construction is confined to poetry and the solemn or formal style. In ordinary language the indicative or a verb-phrase with may is used.

• Take heed that he does not escape.
• Give him food in order that he may not perish.
• Let us wait till he comes.

285. The past subjunctive had is common in had rather and similar phrases.

• I had rather wait a day.
• You had better leave the room.
• He had as lief go as stay.

286. The subjunctive forms are often replaced by verb-phrases containing the auxiliaries may, might, could, would, should.

1. In wishes (§ 277).

• May you live long and prosper!
• May he never repent this act!
• Ah, could I but live a hundred years!

2. In concessions and conditions (§§ 279–280).

• Though {I | you | he} should fail, there would still be hope.
• If {I | you | he} should fail, all would be lost.

3. In sentences expressing not what is or was, but what would be or would have been, the case (§ 283).

• {I should | You would | He would} write to Charles if I knew his address.
• It would have been better to telegraph.

4. In subordinate clauses introduced by that, lest, before, until, etc. (§ 284).

• I will take care that nothing may prevent.
• I took care that nothing {might | should} prevent.
• The general determined to wait until fresh troops should arrive.

POTENTIAL VERB-PHRASES

USE OF MODAL AUXILIARIES

287. Several auxiliary verbs are used to form verb-phrases indicating ability, possibility, obligation, or necessity.

Such verb-phrases are called potential phrases, that is, “phrases of possibility.”

The auxiliary verbs used in potential phrases are:—may, can, must, might, could, would, and should. They are called modal auxiliaries and are followed by the infinitive without to.

• We may ask him a few questions.
• I can manage a motor car.
• You must inquire the way.
• He might give you a chance.
• I could show you his house if you would permit me.
• I should enjoy a sea-voyage.

Note. The fact that give, etc., in such phrases as can give, are infinitives may be seen by comparing “I can strike” with “I am able to strike,” “I may strike” with “I am permitted to strike,” “I must strike” with “I am obliged to strike,” and so on. In earlier periods of the language, when the infinitive had a special ending (-an or -en), the nature of the construction was unmistakable.

288. Potential phrases may be arranged in tables of conjugation, like that on pp. 108–110. They are often called, collectively, the potential mood.

Active Voice

Present Tense
SINGULAR	PLURAL
1. I may strike.34	1. We may strike.
2. Thou mayst strike.	2. You may strike.
3. He may strike.	3. They may strike.
Past Tense
1. I might strike.35	1. We might strike.
2. Thou mightst strike.	2. You might strike.
3. He might strike.	3. They might strike.
Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense
1. I may have struck.36	1. We may have struck.
2. Thou mayst have struck.	2. You may have struck.
3. He may have struck.	3. They may have struck.
Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense
1. I might have struck.37	1. We might have struck.
2. Thou mightst have struck.	2. You might have struck.
3. He might have struck.	3. They might have struck.

Passive Voice

Present Tense
I may be struck, etc.	We may be struck, etc.
Past Tense
I might be struck, etc.	We might be struck, etc.
Perfect (or Present Perfect) Tense
I may have been struck, etc.	We may have been struck, etc.
Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense
I might have been struck, etc.	We might have been struck, etc.

289. Can (past tense, could) regularly indicates that the subject is able to do something.

• John can ride a bicycle.
• Harry could swim.

290. May (past tense, might) indicates (1) permission, (2) possibility or doubtful intention, (3) a wish.

• (1) You may borrow my pencil.
• I told him that he might join our party.
• (2) He may accept my offer.
• You might not like it.
• (3) May good fortune attend you!

291. In asking permission, the proper form is “May I?” not “Can I?” With negatives, however, can is more common than may, except in questions. Thus,—

• Question. May I (or mayn’t I) play ball this morning?
• Answer. No, you cannot; but you may play this afternoon.

292. Must expresses necessity or obligation.

• We must all die sometime.
• You must wait for the train.
• You must not be discouraged by failure.

Note. Must, though originally a past tense, is in modern English almost always used as a present. Past necessity may be expressed by had to with the infinitive: as,—“I had to wait for the train.”

293. Ought with the present infinitive, expresses a present duty or moral obligation; with the perfect infinitive, a past duty or obligation. Should is often used in the same sense.

• I ought to write that letter. [Present.]
• You ought not to object. [Present.]
• This roof ought to be mended. [Present.]
• I ought to have known better. [Past.]
• Your dog ought not to have been unleashed. [Past.]
• You should be careful. [Present.]
• The garden should have been weeded yesterday. [Past.]

Note. Ought is really an old past tense of the verb owe, but is now always a present. Its former meaning may be seen in Dame Quickly’s “You ought him a thousand pound” (Shakspere, 1 Henry IV, iii. 3. 152).

Had should never be prefixed to ought.

Correct	Incorrect
You ought to stay at home.	You had ought to stay at home.
We oughtn’t to make so much noise.	We hadn’t ought to make so much noise.
John ought to begin, oughtn’t he?	John ought to begin, hadn’t he?

294. Should and ought sometimes express what would certainly be expected in the case supposed.

• Three weeks {should | ought to} suffice.
• If the train is on time, he {should | ought to} arrive at six.

295. Would in all three persons sometimes indicates habitual action in the past.

• I would gaze at the sea for hours at a time.
• Whenever we asked Edward about his adventures, he would begin to talk of something else.

SPECIAL RULES FOR SHOULD AND WOULD

296. Should is the past tense of shall, and would is the past tense of will. Hence the rules for should and would are similar to those for shall and will (§§ 233–239). But there is much variation, especially in subordinate clauses.

I. IN SIMPLE SENTENCES AND INDEPENDENT CLAUSES

297. Except in certain kinds of subordinate clauses, the distinction between should and would is practically the same as that between shall and will.

When the auxiliary verb expresses futurity without any idea of wishing, consenting, or the like, the forms are as follows:—

Assertions (Declarative)

SINGULAR	PLURAL
1. I should fall.	1. We should fall.
2. Thou wouldst fall.	2. You would fall.
3. He would fall.	3. They would fall.

Questions (Interrogative)

SINGULAR	PLURAL
1. Should I fall?	1. Should we fall?
2. Shouldst thou fall?	2. Should you fall?
3. Would he fall?	3. Would they fall?

298. Common errors are the use of I would for I should in assertions, and that of Would I? and Would you? for Should I? and Should you? in questions.

The correct forms are shown in the following sentences.

I. I should (we should) and I would (we would) in assertions:—

• 1. I should break my neck if I fell.
• 2. I should hesitate to try this experiment.
• 3. I shouldn’t wonder if he escaped.
• 4. We should regret any misunderstanding.
• 5. I should wish to examine the plans again before deciding.
• 6. I should be glad to accept any fair offer.
• 7. I would give five dollars for a ticket.
• 8. I would help you if I could.
• 9. I would never agree to such a proposition.
• 10. We would rather die than surrender.
• 11. We would pay our bill to-day if we had the money.
• 12. I would gladly accept any fair offer.

In the first six examples, I (or we) should is correct, because the auxiliary gives no suggestion of the speaker’s will (or volition). In the last six, on the contrary, the speaker’s willingness or desire is plainly expressed by the auxiliary, and I (or we) would is therefore used.

II. Should I (or we)? in questions:—

• 1. Should I break my neck if I fell?
• 2. Should I be poisoned if I ate those berries?
• 3. Should I take cold without my overcoat?
• 4. Should I disturb you if I were to practise my music lesson?
• 5. Should we run aground if we missed the channel?

Note. Would I? is confined, for the most part, to questions in which one repeats the words or thought of another. Thus,—“You would give five dollars for a ticket.” “Would I? No, I wouldn’t!” In this use it is chiefly colloquial.

III. Should you? and Would you? in questions:—

• 1. Should you drown if the boat were to capsize? [Yes, I should drown, for I do not know how to swim.]
• 2. Should you despair if this plan were a failure? [No, I should not, for I have other resources.]
• 3. Should you think that ten yards of velvet would be enough? [Yes, I should think so.]
• 4. Should you be offended if I were to speak frankly? [No, I should not be offended.]
• 5. Should you wish to examine the plans again before deciding? [Yes, I should (see note under I, above).]
• 6. Would you wear a hat or a cap? [I would wear a cap if I were you.]
• 7. Would you study Greek if you were in my place? [Yes, I would.]
• 8. Would you accept my apology if it were offered? [Certainly, I would accept it gladly.]
• 9. Would you be so kind as to lend me your compasses? [Certainly I would lend them, if I had not lost them.]
• 10. Would you allow me to use your name as a reference? [I would.]

The choice between should and would in these sentences corresponds to the form expected in the answer (§ 238).

299. The chief occasions on which Would you? is correct are:—(1) in asking advice in a matter of doubt, and (2) in asking consent or permission.

In examples 6 and 7 in § 298, III, the speaker asks advice; in 8, 9, and 10, he asks consent or permission.

300. Note that the proper forms are I should like, Should I like? and Should you like?

• I should like to read that book.
• Should I like to go to Rome? Indeed, I should.
• Should you like to receive a copy of our catalogue? [I should like to receive one.]

Note. Would is very common in these phrases, even among writers of repute, but it is still contrary to the best usage. The reason for should is the same as in I should wish (§ 298, I, note).

301. I’d and we’d are contractions of I would and we would. Hence they can never stand for I should and we should (§ 235).

302. Should in the second and third persons may be used in simple declarative sentences and independent clauses to express the will of the speaker (§ 239).

• If I had my way, you should be prosecuted. [That is: I would take care that you were prosecuted.]
• If I had the money, you should be paid immediately. [Compare: You shall be paid.]
• If I were you, she should not regret her generosity. [Compare: She shall not regret it.]

II. SHOULD AND WOULD IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

303. In some kinds of subordinate clauses, the use of should and would differs considerably from that in simple sentences and principal clauses.

The following classes require attention:—(1) clauses of purpose or expectation (§ 304), (2) conditional and concessive clauses (§ 305), (3) clauses expressing volition not that of the subject (§ 306), (4) clauses stating something as an idea (§ 307), (5) indirect discourse (§ 308).

304. In subordinate clauses expressing the purpose or expectation with which anything is done, shall and should are used in all three persons.

• Charleton took great pains that {I | you | they} should understand the details of the treaty.
• Scott {is | was} very careful that nothing {shall | should} interfere with his plans.
• They took every precaution lest {I | you | he} should suspect the plot.
• Anderson waited patiently until {I | you | they} should arrive with the horses.
• We strained every nerve to reach the cave before the storm should break.

305. In conditional or concessive clauses expressing a future supposed case doubtfully, shall and should are used in all three persons; but will and would are proper when the subject is thought of as wishing or consenting.

• 1. What would happen if {I | you | he} should not carry out the commander’s instructions?
• 2. If {I | you | he} should miss the steamer, our friends would be alarmed.
• 3. Whoever {shall | should} violate this law {shall | should} pay the penalty. [That is: If anybody shall violate, etc.]
• 4. Whenever {I | you | he} shall find an opportunity, let us try the experiment. [That is: If ever I shall find, etc.]
• 5. He promised to assist you whenever you should need help. [Whenever = if ever.]
• 6. Though {we | you | they} should fail, others would make the attempt. [Concession.]
• 7. Though Evans should disappoint me, I should not lose confidence in him.
• 8. Vernon will do his part if {I | you | they} will coöperate with him.
• 9. If {I | you | he} will only make the effort, success is certain.
• 10. Edmund would reveal the secret if {I | you | they} would assist him in his search for the treasure.
• 11. If we would take pains, our parents would be satisfied.
• 12. Whoever will join us may be sure of a pleasant and profitable journey. [That is: If any one will join us, he may be sure, etc.]

When a future supposed case is admitted or conceded as certain, will may be used in the second and third persons to denote mere futurity.

• Though {you | he} will certainly fail, {you | he} may make the attempt.
• Though the ship will not sink for some hours, let us take to the boats.

306. Shall and should are often used in the second and third persons in subordinate clauses to express volition which is not that of the subject.

• Templeton insists that you shall accompany him.
• This letter directs where you shall station yourself.
• We gave orders that the gates should be closed.
• My wish is that {you | he} should remain at home.
• The law prescribed when and to whom the tax should be paid.

307. When a clause with that states something, not as a fact but as an idea to be considered, should is the proper auxiliary in all three persons.

• I am not surprised that you should find your lesson rather difficult. [That is: “When I consider the matter, I do not find the idea surprising.” In “I am not surprised that you find,” etc., the subordinate clause makes the statement as a fact.]
• It is strange that Tom should neglect his swimming lessons. [Contrast: It is strange that Tom neglects.]
• That Napoleon should have chafed at captivity is only natural. [Contrast: That Napoleon chafed.]

308. For shall and will, should and would, in indirect discourse, see §§ 438–439.

THE INFINITIVE

309. The infinitive is a verb-form that has some of the properties of a noun (§ 28). Its two-sided character comes out clearly when it is used as the subject of a sentence.

• 1. To hope is our only resource.
• 2. To flatter is not my custom.
• 3. To sleep was an impossibility.
• 4. To surrender seemed disgraceful.
• 5. To choose wisely was my greatest difficulty.
• 6. To scale the wall was the work of a moment.

Each of these infinitives (to hope, to flatter, etc.) is a noun, for each is the simple subject of a sentence. Besides, an ordinary noun may be substituted for each infinitive with no change in meaning; as,—“Hope is our only resource”; “Flattery is not my custom”; “Sleep was an impossibility.”

But each of these infinitives is also a verb,—for (1) it expresses action; (2) it may be modified by an adverb, as in No. 5; (3) it takes an object if it is transitive, as in No. 6.

An infinitive (as the examples show) has regularly no subject and therefore lacks both number and person. Hence it is not bound by the general rule for the agreement of a verb with its subject (§ 222). From this fact it derives its name, infinitive, which means “unrestricted” or “free from limitations.”³⁸

310. The infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It expresses action or state in the simplest possible way, without person or number.

It is commonly preceded by the preposition to, which is called the sign of the infinitive.

To is not, in strictness, a part of the infinitive, but it may be so regarded for convenience, since the infinitive, in most of its uses, is preceded by to.

Note. To sometimes stands for an infinitive in careless speech: as,—“You may go if you wish to” (that is, “if you wish to go”). Such expressions are to be avoided. It is better to say, “You may go if you wish.”

311. The infinitive often lacks to, especially in verb-phrases with the auxiliaries will, shall, may, can, must, might, could, would, should, do, did. For examples, see pp. 102, 114, 124.

312. The infinitive has two tenses,—the present and the perfect.

1. The present infinitive is the verb in its simplest form, usually preceded by to: as,—to live, to teach, to bind, to strike.

2. The perfect infinitive is made by prefixing the infinitive of the auxiliary verb have to the past participle (§ 243): as,—to have lived, to have taught, to have bound, to have struck.

313. An infinitive may be modified by an adverb, an adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause.

• To write legibly is a valuable accomplishment.
• It would be useless to search longer.
• They allowed him to go in peace. [Adverbial phrase.]
• To dive among those weeds would be folly.
• Theodore promises to come when I send for him. [Adverbial clause.]

No modifier should be inserted between to and the infinitive.

• I beg you to inquire carefully into this matter. [Not: to carefully inquire.]
• Mr. Harris moved to postpone the question indefinitely. [Not: to indefinitely postpone.]
• I expect always to be poor. [Not: to always be poor.]

Note. Careless writers pay slight attention to this rule, and some good writers and speakers defy it, hoping to break it down. But it is unquestionably still in accord with the best usage.

314. The infinitive may take an object if its meaning allows.

• I long to visit Italy.
• My mother feared to enter the house.
• To launch a boat was impossible.
• To grant your request is a pleasure.
• To give him money is useless. [Money is the direct object of to give, and him the indirect object.]

315. The infinitive is used in a variety of constructions,—(1) as a noun, (2) as an adjective modifier or adverbial modifier, (3) in the so-called infinitive clause.

I. THE INFINITIVE AS NOUN

316. The infinitive is used in various noun constructions,—as subject, as predicate nominative, as nominative of exclamation, as appositive, as object of certain prepositions, as modifier.

317. An infinitive with or without a complement or modifiers, may be used as the subject of a sentence, as a predicate nominative, or as an appositive.

• To descend was extremely difficult. [Subject.]
• To secure a seat was impossible.
• To sing well requires practice.
• His delight was to travel. [Predicate nominative.]
• The governor’s policy is to wait.
• My wish is to see you immediately.
• To decide was to act. [The first infinitive is the subject, and the second is a predicate nominative.]
• Both alternatives, to advance and to retreat, seemed equally hazardous. [Apposition with the subject.]
• My first plan, to tunnel under the wall, proved a failure.
• He has but one aim in life, to succeed. [Apposition with the object.]
• I have written with a definite purpose, to dissuade you.
• I give you three choices,—to buy, to lease, or to build.

318. An infinitive in the predicate is often in apposition with the expletive subject it.

• It was a pleasure to see him. [Instead of: To see him was a pleasure.]
• It is easy to understand you.
• It will be impossible to forget.
• It proved very difficult to find evidence against him.

In this use the infinitive, though grammatically in apposition with it, is really the subject of the thought (see § 120, 2).

319. The infinitive may be used as the object of the prepositions but, except, about.

• There was nothing to do but walk (or to walk).
• He will do anything except resign (or except to resign).
• We are about to object. [An idiom expressing futurity.]
• The train is about to start.

320. The infinitive may be used as a nominative of exclamation (§ 88, 4).

• To sleep! perchance to dream!
• To suffer and be silent!
• O to be a boy again! [A wish.]
• O to have lived in the brave days of old!

II. THE INFINITIVE AS A MODIFIER

321. An infinitive may be used as an adjective modifier of a noun or as an adverbial modifier of an adjective.

In this use the infinitive is said to depend on the word which it modifies.

With Nouns (Adjective Modifier)	With Adjectives (Adverbial Modifier)
An opportunity to advance came.	The men are ready to advance.
Determination to win brings success.	John is eager to win.
Willingness to oblige makes friends.	I shall be glad to oblige you.
I wish I had the ability to swim.	We are all able to swim.
His anxiety to please us was laughable.	He is anxious to please everybody.

322. The infinitive without to may be used as an adjective modifier after the direct object of see, hear, feel, and some other verbs of like meaning.

• I saw the policeman arrest him.
• Hear the sea roar!
• Can you feel the ground tremble?
• Ruth watched the tide come in.

In this use the infinitive is practically equivalent to a participle. Compare “I heard him shout” with “I heard him shouting.” Hence the substantive may be regarded as an object, and the infinitive as its modifier. But the construction closely approaches that of an infinitive clause (§§ 324–325).

323. An infinitive may modify a verb (1) by completing its meaning, or (2) by expressing the purpose of the action.

I. Complementary Infinitive

• The ship began to roll.
• The rain continued to fall heavily.
• Every boy desires to succeed.
• The officer neglected to watch his men.
• The prisoners attempted to escape.
• You promised to come to-night.

After dare, the complementary infinitive may or may not have to. Thus,—“I dare not do it”; “Who will dare to speak?”

II. Infinitive of Purpose

• He went to New York to study medicine.
• He opened his lips to speak.
• She closed her eyes to shut out the sight.
• Elsa lifted the cover to see what was inside.
• The conductor signalled to stop the train.
• Harold waited to assist his teacher.

Both the complementary infinitive and the infinitive of purpose may be regarded as adverbial phrases modifying the verb.

Note. After some verbs the infinitive approaches the construction of a pure noun and is often regarded as an object. Thus,—“I desire to see you” (compare “I desire a sight of you”). It is simpler, however, to regard all such infinitives as complementary and to treat them as adverbial modifiers. For it is impossible to distinguish the construction of the infinitive after certain adjectives (as in “I am eager to see you”) from its construction after such verbs as wish and desire.

III. THE INFINITIVE CLAUSE

324. A peculiar infinitive construction often replaces a that-clause as the object of a verb. Thus,—

I wished {that he should go. | him to go.}

In the first sentence, the noun clause that he should go is the object of wished; in the second, this clause is replaced by him to go, but without any change in meaning. This expression consists of two parts:—(1) him, a pronoun in the objective case, which replaces the subject he; and (2) an infinitive to go, which replaces the predicate should go. Thus it is plain that him to go is also a noun clause, of which him is the subject, and to go the predicate. Such an expression is called an infinitive clause.

325. A kind of clause, consisting of a substantive in the objective case followed by an infinitive, may be used as the object of certain verbs.

Such clauses are called infinitive clauses, and the substantive is said to be the subject of the infinitive.

The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.

Infinitive clauses are used (1) after verbs of wishing, commanding, advising, and the like, and (2) after some verbs of believing, declaring, and perceiving.³⁹ Thus,—

• The colonel commanded them to charge [= that they should charge].
• I believe him to be trustworthy [= that he is trustworthy].
• The judge declared him to be a dangerous man [= that he was, etc.].

After a few verbs the infinitive without to is used in infinitive clauses.

• Mr. Esmond bade his servant pack a portmanteau and get horses. [Compare: ordered his servant to pack, etc.]
• What makes him cry? [Compare: What causes him to cry?]
• I let him sleep. [Compare: I allowed him to sleep.]

326. A predicate pronoun after to be in an infinitive clause is in the objective case, agreeing with the subject of the infinitive.

Care should be taken not to confuse this construction with the predicate nominative (§ 88, 2).

Predicate Pronoun after to be	Predicate Nominative
I believed it to be her.	I believed that it was she.
We know the author to be him.	We know that the author is he.
	The author is known to be he.
He thought Richard to be me.	He thought that Richard was I.
	Richard was thought to be I.
We suspected the intruders to be them.	We suspected that the intruders were they.

Note the case of the relatives and of the predicate pronouns in the following sentences:—

• A boy whom I thought to be honest deceived me. [Whom is the subject of the infinitive to be and is therefore in the objective case.]
• A boy who, I thought, was honest deceived me. [Who is the subject of was and is therefore nominative. I thought is parenthetical (§ 502).]
• A boy whom I believe to be him just passed me.
• A boy who, I believe, was he, just passed me.

327. An infinitive clause may be the object of the preposition for. Thus,—

• I wrote for him to come. [The clause him to come is the object of for; him is the subject of to come.]
• They are waiting on the shore
  For the bark to take them home.—Noel.
• I long for him to come back.

328. An infinitive clause with for may be used as a subject, as a predicate nominative, or as the object of a preposition.

• For us to delay would be fatal to your enterprise. [Compare: Our delay would be fatal.]
• Our best plan is for the boat to shoot the rapids. [Predicate nominative agreeing with the subject plan.]
• I see no way out of the difficulty except for them to offer an apology. [Compare: except the offer of an apology on their part.]

PARTICIPLES

329. Certain words unite in themselves some of the properties of adjectives with some of the properties of verbs. Such words are called participles (§ 31). Thus,—

Shattered and sinking, but gallantly returning the enemy’s fire, the frigate drifted out to sea.

Shattered, sinking, and returning are verb-forms which are in some respects similar to infinitives: for (1) they express action; (2) they have no subject to agree with, and hence have neither person nor number; and (3) one of them takes a direct object. They differ from infinitives, however, in that they resemble, not nouns, but adjectives, for they describe the substantive frigate to which they belong.

Such verb-forms are called participles, because they share (or participate in) the nature of adjectives.

330. The participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which partakes of the nature of an adjective and expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a substantive.

• Who thundering comes on blackest steed?—Byron.
• Clinging to the horns of the altar, voiceless she stood.—De Quincey.
• Deserted, surrounded, outnumbered, and with everything at stake, he did not even deign to stand on the defensive.—Macaulay.
• Shrouded in such baleful vapors, the genius of Burns was never seen in clear azure splendor, enlightening the world.—Carlyle.

FORMS OF PARTICIPLES

331. Verbs have three participles,—the present, the past, and the perfect.

332. The present participle ends in -ing. It usually describes an action as taking place at the same time with some other action.

• Tom came sauntering up the path.
• The beggar shambled down the steps, grumbling.
• Reaching for the flower, I lost my balance.

333. The present participle often refers to time preceding that denoted by the predicate verb.

• Rising from his chair, he bowed. [That is, when he had risen.]
• Learning that your brother was in trouble, I hastened to his aid.

334. The past participle is always associated with the idea of past time or completed action.

1. The past participle of a weak verb has the same form as the past tense.⁴⁰

Present Tense	Past Tense	Past Participle
I mend chairs.	I mended the chairs.	The chairs are mended.
I sweep the rooms.	I swept the rooms.	The rooms are swept.
I seek treasure.	I sought treasure.	Treasure is sought.
I lose money.	I lost money.	The money is lost.

2. The past participle of strong verbs shows a change from the vowel of the present tense.

All strong verbs had originally the ending en (n) in the past participle, but this ending has been lost in many verbs.

Present Tense	Past Tense	Past Participle
He speaks.	He spoke.	(He has) spoken.
He draws.	He drew.	(He has) drawn.
He sings.	He sang.	(He has) sung.
He wins.	He won.	(He has) won.

The forms show great variety and must be learned by practice. (See pp. 291–297 for a list.)

335. The perfect participle is made by prefixing having to the past participle.

• Having mended the watch, I sent it to the owner.
• Having lost his money, James was forced to walk home.

336. The present participle is used in forming the progressive verb-phrases (§§ 255–259).

The past participle is used in forming the complete tenses (§§ 242–244) and the passive voice (§ 247).

CONSTRUCTIONS OF PARTICIPLES

337. Since the participle has adjective properties, its constructions are in the main like those of adjectives.

338. A participle is said to belong to the substantive which it describes or limits.

• Rupert, missing his companion, stepped to the door. [The present participle missing belongs to the subject Rupert.]
• Rising, she opened the window. [Rising belongs to she.]
• I heard the rain falling. [Falling belongs to the object rain.]
• Tom’s arm, broken by the blow, hung useless. [The past participle broken belongs to the subject arm.]
• Having climbed the hill with great difficulty, I stopped to rest. [The perfect participle having climbed belongs to the subject I.]

339. A participle should not be used without some substantive to which it may belong.

• Right: Entering the room, we saw a strange sight. [The participle entering belongs to the pronoun we.]
• Wrong: Entering the room, a strange sight was seen. [Since there is no substantive to which entering can belong, it has no construction.]

Apparent exceptions are concerning, considering, pending, generally speaking, etc. The first three may be classed as prepositions (§ 355), the last as an independent participle.

We fought every day, and, generally speaking, twice every day.—De Quincey.

Note. The rule in § 339 does not apply to such phrases as on entering, after investigating, etc., in which the words in -ing are not participles, but verbal nouns (§ 348). Thus the following sentences are grammatical:—“On entering the room, a strange sight appeared”; “After investigating the subject, the plan was adopted.” Such expressions, however, should be used with caution, since they are sometimes awkward or ambiguous.

340. A participle may be modified by an adverb, an adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause.

• Smiling brightly, she extended her hand. [Adverb.]
• He leaped forward, shrieking with all his might. [Adverbial phrase.]
• Laughing until he cried, he sank into a chair. [Adverbial clause.]

341. A participle may take an object if its meaning allows.

• I found the old man mending his net.
• Lifting the box, he moved toward the door.
• Giving me a friendly nod, he passed on. [Here nod is the direct object of giving, and me is the indirect object.]

The participle, with its modifiers and such other words as are attached to it, is sometimes called a participial phrase.

342. A participle may be used as a pure adjective.

• A grinning boy confronted me.
• A battered hat hung on the peg.
• Kate was playing with a broken doll.
• We could hear a rushing stream.
• Willing hands make light work.
• He was struck by a spent ball.

343. The past participle is often used as a predicate adjective expressing state or condition.

This construction is easily confused with the passive of verbs. The distinction may be seen in the following examples:—

• The rain began to fall heavily, and every time a gust of wind struck us we were drenched by it.
• When the rain at last ceased, we were drenched [that is, very wet].

In the first sentence, were drenched is the past passive of the verb drench (compare the active “every time a gust of wind struck us, it drenched us”). In the second, the participle drenched expresses mere condition, and is therefore a predicate adjective. The distinction, however, is not always sharp, and in cases of doubt the phrase may be taken together as a passive verb.

Note. The real test is the following. Whenever a person or thing is distinctly present to the mind as the doer of the action, we have a passive verb-phrase. Whenever, on the other hand, the participle merely describes condition with no thought of its being the result of an antecedent act, the construction is that of a predicate adjective (§ 172, 3).

Nominative Absolute

344. A substantive, with the participle belonging to it, is often used to make a peculiar form of adverbial modifying phrase: as,—

The wind failing, we lowered the sail.

Here the wind failing is equivalent to an adverbial phrase (on the failure of the wind) or an adverbial clause (when the wind failed). It defines the time of the action.

{The wind failing, | On the failure of the wind, | When the wind failed,} we lowered the sail.

345. A substantive, with a participle, may express the cause, time, or circumstances of an action.

This is called the absolute construction.

The substantive is in the nominative case and is called a nominative absolute.

• My knife slipping, I cut myself severely. [The phrase my knife slipping is equivalent to because my knife slipped: it expresses cause.]
• Two days having elapsed, we again set forward. [The phrase in italics is equivalent to when two days had elapsed: it expresses time.]
• Evenings he read aloud, his wife sewing by his side. [The phrase expresses one of the circumstances that attended the reading.]
• This done, proceed to business. [The phrase this done is equivalent to the clause since (or when) this is done, and indicates cause or time.]

Note. This construction is called absolute (that is, “free” or “loosened”) because the substantive is not in any one of the constructions (subject, object, apposition, etc.) which ordinarily attach nouns grammatically to other words in the sentence. Nevertheless, the whole phrase, though standing apart from the rest of the sentence, is in meaning an adverbial modifier of some verb.

346. The participle being is sometimes omitted in the absolute construction.

• Allen once mayor, my chance of advancement would be ruined. [That is: Allen once being mayor.]
• Peter stood before me, his hands in his pockets.
• His clothing in shreds, he presented a sorry sight.

VERBAL NOUNS IN -ING (PARTICIPIAL NOUNS)

347. English has a large and important class of verbal nouns that end in -ing, and that serve as the names of actions.

These are identical in form with present participles, for which they are frequently mistaken. The distinction, however, is clear, for the present participle is never used as the name of an action. Hence no such word in -ing that is a subject or an object, or stands in any other noun construction, can be a participle.

• While I was travelling in Mexico, I met with an accident. [Participle.]
• Travelling broadens the mind. [Verbal noun, used as subject.]
• He enjoys travelling. [Verbal noun, used as object of a verb.]
• He spends his time in travelling. [Verbal noun, object of a preposition.]
• Tom’s favorite exercise is swimming. [Verbal noun, predicate nominative.]
• This sport, fishing, has been called the contemplative man’s recreation. [Verbal noun, in apposition with sport.]

That nouns in -ing are real nouns may be proved by putting ordinary nouns in their place.

Travelling broadens the mind.	Travel broadens the mind.
Talking is useless.	Talk is useless.
He is afraid of falling.	He is afraid of a fall.

348. From nearly every English verb there may be formed a verbal noun in -ing.

Verbal nouns in -ing have the form of present participles, but the construction of nouns.

They are often called participial nouns.

Such nouns are freely used, either by themselves or in a series along with ordinary nouns.

• Mining is a dangerous occupation.
• Painting and sculpture are sister arts.
• The Indians of Massachusetts spent their time in hunting, fishing, agriculture, and warfare.
• Reading, writing, and arithmetic are jocosely called “the three r’s.”

349. Verbal nouns in -ing have certain properties of the verb.

1. Verbal nouns in -ing may take a direct or an indirect object if their meaning allows.

• Digging gold seems to the uninitiated like finding buried treasure.
• Lending him money is useless; it merely fosters his unthrifty habits. [Here the noun lending, which is the simple subject of the sentence, takes both a direct object (money) and an indirect object (him), precisely as the verb lend might do.]

2. A verbal noun in -ing may take an adverbial modifier.

Speaking extemporaneously is good practice. [Here the verbal noun speaking is the simple subject; but it is modified by the adverb extemporaneously, precisely as if it were a verb.]

But verbal nouns in -ing, like other nouns, may be modified by adjectives.

Extemporaneous speaking is good practice.

3. To the verbal nouns being and having, past participles may be attached, so as to give the effect of voice and tense.

• After being instructed in my duties, I was ordered to wait on the king.
• There were grave doubts expressed as to his having seen the mastodon.
• After having been treated in so harsh a fashion, I had no wish to repeat the interview.

Such expressions are verbal noun-phrases.

350. Verbal nouns in -ing are similar in some of their constructions to infinitives used as nouns (p. 135).

Infinitive as Noun	Verbal Noun in -ing
To swim was difficult.	Swimming was difficult.
My business is to make shoes.	My business is making shoes.
To see is to believe.	Seeing is believing.

Nouns in -ing are sometimes called infinitives or gerunds.

351. A noun in -ing may be used as an adjective, or as the adjective element in a compound noun (§ 64).

• The sleeping car was completely wrecked.
• William has plenty of spending money.

Note. Other examples are:—a working day, an ironing board, drinking water, smelling salts, marching orders, a walking tour, a swimming race, a vaulting pole. In such cases it makes little difference whether the two nouns are taken together as a compound, or whether the first is regarded as an adjective modifying the second. The difference between this use and that of the participle is perfectly clear. A “sleeping dog” is a dog that sleeps; a “sleeping car” is a car for sleeping. Sometimes, indeed, either explanation is possible. Thus, a “hoisting engine” may be understood either as an “engine that hoists,” or as an “engine for hoisting.” But it is better to class these exceptions with the nouns in -ing.

352. When a verbal noun in -ing is preceded by an article or any other adjective, it cannot take an object.

• {Shooting song-birds | The shooting of song-birds} is forbidden.
• {Launching a ship | The launching of a ship} requires care and skill.
• {Drawing maps | The drawing of maps} is a useful exercise.
• {Eating confectionery constantly | Constant eating of confectionery} is bad for the teeth.
• My business is {driving wells. | the driving of wells.}

Observe that, in each instance, the object (song-birds, ship, maps, confectionery, wells) is replaced by a prepositional phrase when an article or other adjective precedes the verbal noun.

Note. In such expressions as “I went a-fishing,” a is a shortened form of the preposition on, and fishing is a verbal noun used as its object. When a is omitted we have “I went fishing,” “The house is building,” and the like, in which the word in -ing seems to be a participle, but is really the object of the omitted a (= on).

353. The possessive case of a noun or pronoun may be used to limit a verbal noun in -ing.

• I was sure of its being he. [Not: it.]
• I heard of Allen’s being elected. [Not: Allen.]